Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina
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- See also: Moldovenism
Until 1952, the education for the locals was done in a very broken language (extremely low vocabulary and many borrowing from Russian and from the Soviet bureaucratic speech) that was spoken by a handful of ethnically Moldavian communist activists from the former Moldavian ASSR, and using the Cyrillic script. At that point, realizing that to create a whole literature for a speech shared by only a few hundred individuals and impose it on 3 millions was impossible, the Soviet authorities decided to drop it "because the local peasants can not understand it"[citation needed], and return to the normal language. Hence, Mihai Eminescu and Ion Creangă were again allowed, and the standard written language became the same as Romanian, except that it was written with cyrillic script.
The Soviet authorities policy of describing 1918-1940 period as a yoke of feodal boyars and rich bourgeois speaking in half-French assigned to the word Romanian a negative connotation. Locals' ethnicity was written as Moldavians in documents, and the language was renamed Moldavian language. In the Bukovinain part of the Chernivtsi oblast, locals did not have the habit of calling themselves both Moldavians and Romanians before 1918, as they did in Bessarabia, and hence the Soviet authorities allowed them to keep their ethnic group as Romanians in the documents. This also became handy, as split into Moldavians and Ukrainians, the share of the ethnic group in the population of the oblast was statistically less observable. Children of deportees that were prevented to return to Moldova from Siberia and Kazakhstan were allowed to be schooled only in Russian.
In Moldavian SSR, Soviet authorities opened many more Russian schools than Romanian ones in the cities, calling for locals to send their children to Russian-language schools, explaining them that without knowing Russian they would not be able to get normal jobs. Russian schools were also less crowded with respect to the number of students in a class. The authorities encouraged in addition the creation of mixed schools, generally having three Romanian-language for every Russian-language class, thus all administration being in Russian.
A new local intelligentsia, to replace the virtually exterminated one, started to form in late 1960s and early 1970s. However, being composed generally of descendants from farmers, it did not have the benefit of direct ties to the pre-war intelligentsia. The contacts with classical Romanian literature were greatly limited, as a big number of authors and books were forbidden, including all authors born in Romanian localities outside the medieval Principality of Moldavia, as well as all works touching on their connected to politics of even authors such as Mihai Eminescu, Mihail Kogălniceanu, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Constantin Stere (the former two are classic and well-known, the latter two are in addition born in Bessarabia). However, these contacts were not severed, since after 1956 people were slowly allowed to visit or get visits from relatives in Romania, since Romanian press could be freely bought in Moscow (not in Moldova), and since a poor quality Romanian TV and radio could be heard with a makeshift antenna, and even by ordinary transistor-based radios. The programs of the latter, however, were created by the Communist authorities of Romania, which never dared to cross the Soviet authorities, especially in the question of education and press for ethnic Romanians in USSR, which was a political taboo, especially because the Romanian communists did not totally sided with Soviets against the Chinese after 1959, sometimes even trying to play the brokers.
The Soviet-Romanian border along the Prut river, separating Bessarbia from Romania, was closed for the general public all throughout the Soviet era. In general, visits abroad by Soviet citizens were very rare (comparing to the citizens of Communist Eastern European countries).
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Positive view of the occupation
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See also Khotin Uprising, Tatarbunary Uprising.
During the 1930s, laws were passed in Romania forbidding Jews to occupy state offices, such as administration, police, and army. Unlike in Germany, Jews were not forbidden to practice medicine or teaching, and no infringements were made on the Jewish cultural life.
A portion of the population of Bessarabia viewed the Soviet annexation as a relief. It has been claimed that it was mostly left-wing oriented.[citation needed] During the retreat that took place from June 28 to July 3, the Romanian Army was attacked both by civilian Communists[citation needed] and by the Soviet Army who entered Bessarabia before the Romanian administration finished retreating. In the process, the Romanian Army suffered several thousand casualties[44] (needs a second source), and throughout Romania the view was spread (partly encouraged by the state) that Jews betrayed Romanians in their darkest hour, leading to a significant rise in the anti-Semitic sentiment.
"In the chaos generated by a hasty and unorganized Romanian retreat many things happened that were not supposed to happen [...] Jew and Ukrainian population, in the enthusiasm generated by the departure of Romanian authorities, which made out of this province the worst administered part of the country, have treated the retreating Romanians in a way that will cost them dearly one year later."[45]
The general sentiment with which the population received the occupation and the arrival of Soviet administration was mixed: while some people welcomed and supported it (most passively, but some actively), the middle class, and particularly intellectuals[citation needed] and those better-to-do economically were not happy about the coming infringements on freedom of speech[citation needed], the introduction of a state ideology, the confiscation of private property, and political deportations. These consequences affected the local population of all ethnic groups; only a small politically-connected minority of the pre-1940 population did not suffer from executions, deportations, famine, diseases, or being turned into cannon fodder.[citation needed] Also, some non-Romanians retreated in June-July 1940.
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Notes
^ a: Romanian-Russian treaties:
After the failure to ratify the 5 April 1991 treaty between Romania and Soviet Union, new negotiations were started, but failed before the signing ceremony planned for April 1996. Later, in July 2003, president of Russia Vladimir Putin and Ion Iliescu Finally signed a new treaty.
^ b: Excerpts from Soviet-Nazi diplomatic exchanges on 23–27 June 1940:
"Molotov made the following statement to me today: The solution of the Bessarabian question brooked no further delay. [...] Molotov added that the Soviet Government expected Germany not to hinder but to support the Soviets in their action. The Soviet Government on its part would do everything to safeguard German interests in Rumania."[14]
"However, the further aim of the communiqué, to emphasize German-Soviet solidarity as a preparation for the solution of the Bessarabian problem. is just as plain."[15]
"For its part the Reich Government would be prepared, in the spirit of the Moscow agreements, to advise Rumania, if necessary, to reach an amicable settlement of the Bessarabian question satisfactory to Russia. Please point out again clearly to Herr Molotov our great interest in Rumania's not becoming a theater of war. As matters stand, we are of the opinion that a peaceful settlement in accordance with Russian views is altogether possible, provided the problem is properly handled."[17]
"Molotov added that there had been no discussion of the matter in Moscow or in Bucharest, up to the present."[18]
"The Soviet Union would prefer to realize her claims to Bessarabia (Bucovina was not mentioned) without war, but, if that was impossible because of Rumanian intransigence, she was determined to resort to force. Regarding other areas of Rumania, the Soviet Government would communicate with Germany."[19]
"Molotov summoned me this afternoon and declared that the Soviet Government, on the basis of his conversation with me yesterday, had decided to limit its demands to the northern part of Bucovina and the city of Czernowitz. According to Soviet opinion the boundary line should run from the southernmost point of the Soviet West Ukraine at Mt. Kniatiasa, east along the Suczava and then northeast to Hertza on the Pruth, whereby the Soviet Union would obtain direct railway connection from Bessarabia via Czernowitz to Lemberg. Molotov added that the Soviet Government expected German support of this Soviet demand.
"Regarding further treatment of the matter Molotov has the following idea: The Soviet Government will submit its demand to the Rumanian Minister here within the next few days and expects the German Reich Government at the same time urgently to advise the Rumanian Government in Bucharest to comply with the Soviet demands, since war would otherwise be unavoidable. Molotov promised to inform me immediately as soon as he had spoken to the Rumanian Minister."[20]
"The following instruction is to be transmitted immediately by telephone in plain to Minister Fabricius in Bucharest:
""You are requested to call immediately on the Foreign Minister in Bucharest and inform him as follows:
""The Soviet Government has informed us that it has demanded the cession of Bessarabia and the northern part of Bucovina from the Rumanian Government. In order to avoid war between Rumania and the Soviet Union we can only advise the Rumanian Government to yield to the Soviet Government's demand. Please report by wire.""[22]
^ c: Nicolae Hortolomei's vote
Sources do not agree on this name from the journal of Carol II: weak reject and accept can be found. Some suspect Carol kept the journal to create the suggestion he was ill-advised by his ministers.
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Citations
- ^ (Russian)Ультимативная нота советского правительства румынскому правительству 26 июня 1940 г.
- ^ a b (Romanian) "Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government", in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940, University of Bucharest, 2002
- ^ "Background Note: Romania", United States Department of State, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, October 2007. The text says: "Romania entered World War II on the side of the Axis Powers in June 1941, invading the Soviet Union to recover Bessarabia and Bukovina, which had been annexed in 1940."
- ^ (French) Pacte Molotov-Ribbentrop, at the French embassy in Romania, June 25, 2005, quoting a declaration by Romanian President Traian Băsescu
- ^ After initially stopping at the 1940 border, Romania later occupied Transnistria, a region between the Dniester and Southern Bug rivers, and then sent expedition troops to several different areas to support the German advance further into the USSR.
- ^ "Operation München - retaking Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina - 1941"
- ^ Charles Upson Clark, Bessarabia: Russia and Roumania on the Black Sea, New York, 1927
- ^ Volodymyr Kubijovyč, Arkadii Zhukovsky, Bukovyna, in Encyclopedia of Ukraine, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 2001
- ^ Richard K. Debo, Survival and Consolidation: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1918-1921, McGill-Queen's Press, 1992, ISBN 0773508287, pp. 113-114.
- ^ Kellogg-Briand Pact, at Yale University.
- ^ League of Nations Treaty Series, 1929, No. 2028.
- ^ League of Nations Treaty Series, 1928, No. 2137.
- ^ Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of August 23, 1939. Complete text online at wikisource.org.
- ^ a b The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office; June 23, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ a b The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office; June 24, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ Memorandum. by the Reich Foreign Minister for Hitler; June 24, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ a b The Reich Foreign Minister to the German Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Schulenburg); June 25, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ a b The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office; June 26, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ a b The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office; June 26, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ a b The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office; June 26, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ German Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office; June 27, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ a b The Reich Foreign Minister to the German Foreign Office; June 27, 1940, the Avalon Project at Yale Law School
- ^ The actual result of the first vote was 11 Reject the ultimatum, 10 Accept the ultimatum, 5 For negotiations with the USSR, and 1 Abstained.
- ^ "Hitler's Europe", Time, Monday, July 1, 1940
- ^ Russia on the March Again, TIME Magazine, July 08, 1940
- ^ Treaty of Peace with Roumania at Australian Treaty Series 1948, No. 2
- ^ Armand Goşu, "Politica răsăriteană a României: 1990-2005", Contrafort, No 1 (135), January 2006
- ^ Alexandru Usatiuc-Bulgăr "Cu gîndul la "O lume între două lumi": eroi, martiri, oameni-legendă" ("Thinking of 'A World between Two Worlds': Heroes, Martyrs, Legendary People"), Publisher: Lyceum, Orhei (1999) ISBN 9975-939-36-8
- ^ a b Victor Roncea, "Un Katyn românesc: Crimele uitate ale comunismului", Ziua, 30 December 2006
- ^ Alexandru Usatiuc-Bulgăr "Cu gîndul la "O lume între două lumi": eroi, martiri, oameni-legendă" ("Thinking of 'A World between Two Worlds': Heroes, Martyrs, Legendary People"), Publisher: Lyceum, Orhei (1999) ISBN 9975-939-36-8
- ^ The figures for the latter two are only for MSSR, excluding the territories now in Ukraine, from where people were also deported
- ^ Alexandru Usatiuc-Bulgăr
- ^ Counties were canceled in 1948 in favour of raions.
- ^ Comisia Prezidenţială pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România: Raport Final / ed.: Vladimir , Dorin Dobrincu, Cristian Vasile, Bucureşti: Humanitas, 2007, ISBN 978-973-50-1836-8, p. 747
- ^ Igor Caşu, ""Politica naţională" în Moldova sovietică", Chişinău, Ed. Cartdidact, 2000, p. 32-33
- ^ Mihail Semireaga, "Taini stalinskoi diplomatii", Moscow, Vysshaya Shkola, 1992, p. 270
- ^ "Literatura şi Arta", 12 December 1991
- ^ Report, p. 747-748
- ^ Istoria Stalinskogo Gulaga, vol. 5, p. 715 cf. Report p. 755
- ^ Report, p. 755
- ^ R. J. Rummel, Table 6.A. 5,104,000 victims during the pre-World War II period: sources, calculations and estimates, Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War, University of Hawaii.
- ^ R. J. Rummel, Table 7.A. 13,053,000 victims during World War II: sources, calculations and estimates, op.cit.
- ^ R. J. Rummel, Table 8.A. 15,6133,000 victims during the Postwar and Stalin's twilight period: Soviet murder: sources, calculations and estimates, op.cit.
- ^ Paul Goma (2006). "Săptămâna Roşie", 206.
- ^ Nicolas M. Nagy-Talavera (1970). "Green Shirts and Others: a History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania", 305.
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References
- (English) George Ciorănescu, "40th Anniversary of Annexation of Bessarabia and Northern Bucovina", Radio Free Europe report, July 23, 1980.
- (English) George Ciorănescu, "The Problem of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina during World War II", Radio Free Europe report, December 2, 1981.
- Mikhail Meltyukhov, Stalin's Missed Chance
- Viktor Suvorov, Icebreaker
- (Romanian) Andreea Tudorica, Ovidiu Ciutescu, Corina Andriuta, "Giurgiuleşti, piedică în calea lui Stalin", Jurnalul Naţional, June 26, 2007
- (Romanian) Alexandru Usatiuc-Bulgăr "Cu gîndul la «O lume între două lumi»: eroi, martiri, oameni-legendă" ("Thinking of 'A World between Two Worlds': Heroes, Martyrs, Legendary People"), Publisher: Lyceum, Orhei (1999) ISBN 9975-939-36-8
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See also
- NKVD
- The Black Book of Communism
- Human rights in the Soviet Union
- Stalin's speech on August 19, 1939.
- World War II
- Soviet occupations
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External links
- (English) "Molotov-Ribbentrop pact", from Wikisource
- (English) Modern History Sourcebook, a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts in modern European and World history, http://www.lituanus.org/1989/89_1_03.htm
- (English) "Romanian Army in the Second World War"
- (English) International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania: Final Report (2004)
- (Romanian) "Text of Litvinov-Titulescu pact"
- (Romanian) "Joachim von Ribbentrop to Viaceslav Molotov, regarding of Bessarabia and Bukovina, June 25, 1940"
- (Romanian) "The Ultimatum notes and Romanian responses"
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