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Ruhollah Khomeini



Grand Ayatollah Hossein Montazeri, a major figure of the Revolution, was designated by Khomeini to be his successor as Supreme Leader. The principle of velayat-e faqih and the Islamic constitution called for the Supreme Ruler to be a marja or grand ayatollah, and of the dozen or so grand ayatollahs living in 1981 only Montazeri accepted the concept of rule by Islamic jurist.[116] In 1989 Montazeri began to call for liberalization, freedom for political parties. Following the execution of thousands of political prisoners by the Islamic government, Montazeri told Khomeini `your prisons are far worse than those of the Shah and his SAVAK.`[117] After a letter of his complaints was leaked to Europe and broadcast on the BBC a furious Khomeini ousted him from his position as official successor.

Writers in the West report that the amendment made to Iran's constitution removing the requirement that the Supreme Leader to be a Marja, was to deal with the problem of a lack of any remaining Grand Ayatollahs willing to accept "velayat-e faqih."[118][119][120] However, others say the reason marjas were not elected was because of their lack of votes in the Assembly of Experts, for example Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Golpaygani had the backing of only 13 members of the assembly. Furthermore, there were other marjas present who accepted "velayat-e faqih"[121][122][123] Grand Ayatollah Hossein Montazeri continued his criticism of the regime and in 1997 was put under house arrest for questioning the unaccountable rule exercised by the supreme leader.[124][125][126] He was released in 2003.

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Political thought and legacy

Main article: Political thought and legacy of Khomeini

See also: History of political Islam in Iran

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Throughout his many writings and speeches, Khomeini's views on governance evolved. Originally declaring rule by monarchs or others permissible so long as sharia law was followed [127] Khomeini later adamantly opposed monarchy, arguing that only rule by a leading Islamic jurist (a marja`), would insure Sharia was properly followed (wilayat al-faqih), [128] before finally insisting the ruling jurist need not be a leading one and Sharia rule could be overruled by that jurist if necessary to serve the interests of Islam and the "divine government" of the Islamic state. [129]

Khomeini's concept of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (ولایت فقیه, velayat-e faqih) [10] did not win the support of the leading Iranian Shi'i clergy of the time. Towards the 1979 Revolution, many clerics gradually became disillusioned with the rule of the Shah, although none came around to supporting Khomeini's vision of a theocratic Islamic Republic.[130]

Whether Khomeini's ideas are compatible with democracy and whether he intended the Islamic Republic to be a democratic republic is disputed. According to the state-run Aftab News, [131] both ultraconservative (Mohammad Taghi Mesbah Yazdi) and reformist opponents of the regime (Akbar Ganji and Abdolkarim Soroush) believe he did not, while regime officials and supporters like Ali Khamenei[132], Mohammad Khatami and Mortaza Motahhari[133] believe Khomeini intended the Islamic republic to be democratic and that it is so.[134] Khomeini himself also made statements at different times indicating both support and opposition to democracy.[135]

One scholar, Shaul Bakhash, explains this disagreement as coming from Khomeini's belief that the huge turnout of Iranians in anti-Shah demonstrations during the revolution constituted a `referendum` in favor of an Islamic republic.[136] Khomeini also wrote that since Muslims must support a government based on Islamic law, Sharia-based government will always have more popular support in Muslim countries than any government based on elected representatives.[137]

Khomeini offered himself as a "champion of Islamic revival" and unity, emphasising issues Muslims agreed upon - the fight against zionism and imperialism - and downplaying Shia issues that would divide Shia from Sunni.[138] Khomeini strongly opposed close relations with neither Eastern or Western Bloc nations, believing the Islamic world should be its own bloc, or rather converge into a single unified power.[139] He viewed Western culture as being inherently decadent and a corrupting influence upon the youth. The Islamic Republic banned or discouraged popular Western fashions, music, cinema, and literature.[140] In the Western world it is said "his glowering visage became the virtual face of Islam in Western popular culture" and "inculcated fear and distrust towards Islam."[141] This has particularly been the case in the United States where Khomeini and the Islamic Republic are remembered for the American embassy hostage taking and accused of sponsoring hostage-taking and terrorist attacks,[142][143] and which continues to apply economic sanctions against Iran.

Before taking power Khomeini expressed support for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; in Sahifeh Nour (Vol.2 Page 242), he states: "We would like to act according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. We would like to be free. We would like independence." However once in power Khomeini took a firm line against dissent, warning opponents of theocracy for example: "I repeat for the last time: abstain from holding meetings, from blathering, from publishing protests. Otherwise I will break your teeth."[144] Iran adopted an alternative human rights declaration, the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, in 1990 (one year after Khomeini's death), which diverges in key respects from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[citation needed]

Many of Khomeini's political and religious ideas were considered to be progressive and reformist by leftist intellectuals and activists prior to the Revolution. However, once in power his ideas often clashed with those of modernist or secular Iranian intellectuals. This conflict came to a head during the writing of the Islamic constitution when many newspapers were closed by the government. Khomeini angrily told the intellectuals:

Yes, we are reactionaries, and you are enlightened intellectuals: You intellectuals do not want us to go back 1400 years. You, who want freedom, freedom for everything, the freedom of parties, you who want all the freedoms, you intellectuals: freedom that will corrupt our youth, freedom that will pave the way for the oppressor, freedom that will drag our nation to the bottom. [145]

In contrast to Khomeini's alienation from Iranian intellectuals was his embrace of international revolution and Third World solidarity which "took precedence over Muslim fraternity, in an utter departure from all other Islamist movements." Until Khomeini's death the Iranian press - which was controlled by his supporters - "devoted extensive coverage to non-Muslim revolutionary movements (from the Sandinistas to the African National Congress and the Irish Republican Army) and downplayed the role of the Islamic movements considered conservative, such as the Afghan mujahidin."[146]

Khomeini also emphasized the serious nature of life: "Allah did not create man so that he could have fun. The aim of creation was for mankind to be put to the test through hardship and prayer."[147]

[

Appearance, habits

Khomeini is described as "slim," but athletic and "heavily boned." He was "fairly tall by the Iranian standards of his day", at a height of 1.76 meters (5 ft 9 in).[148] He was known for his punctuality:

He's so punctual that if he doesn't turn up for lunch at exactly ten past everyone will get worried, because his work is regulated in such a way that he turned up for lunch at exactly that time every day. He goes to bed exactly on time. He eats exactly on time. And he wakes up exactly on time. He changes his frock every time he comes back from the mosque. [149]

and for his aloof and stern demeanor. He is said to have "variously inspired admiration, awe, and fear from those around him."[150] His practice of moving "through the halls of the madresehs never smiling at anybody or anything. ... his practice of ignoring his audience while he thought contributed to his charisma." [151] He preached that `there are no jokes in Islam. There is no humor in Islam.`[152]

Khomeini also refusing to eat or drink in a restaurant unless he knew for sure the waiter was a Muslim.[153] He was one of the Shia marja who adhered to traditional beliefs of Islamic cleanliness holding that non-Moslems - like urine, excrement, blood, wine, sweat of the excrement-eating camels, etc. - were one of eleven impure things contact with which required major ritual washing or Ghusl before prayer or salah.[154][155]

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Mystique

Even more famous was his mystique. He benefited from the widespread circulation of "an old Shia saying" attributed to the Imam Musa al-Kazim who is said to have prophesied shortly before his death in 799 that

`A man will come out from Qom and he will summon people to the right path. There will rally to him people resembling pieces of iron, not to be shaken by violent winds, unsparing and relying on God.` [156]

Khomeini was the first and only Iranian cleric to be addressed as "Imam", a title hitherto reserved in Iran for the twelve infallible leaders of the early Shi'a.[157] He was also associated with the Mahdi or 12th Imam of Shia belief in a number of ways. One of his titles was Na'eb-e Imam (Deputy to the [Twelfth Imam). His enemies were often attacked as taghut and mofsidin fi'l-arz (corrupters of the earth), religious terms used for enemies of the Twelfth Imam. Many of the officials of the overthrown Shah's government executed by Revolutionary Courts were convicted of "fighting against the Twelfth Imam". When a deputy in the majlis asked Khomeini if he was the `promised Mahdi`, Khomeini did not answer, "astutely" neither confirming nor denying the title.[158]

In late 1978 a rumour swept the country that Khomeini's face could be seen in the full moon.

Tears of joy were shed and huge quantities of sweets and fruits were consumed as millions of people jumped for joy, shouting `I've seen the Imam in the moon.` The event was celebrated in thousands of mosques with mullahs reminding the faithful that a sure sign of the coming of the Mahdi was that the sun would rise in the West. Khomeini, representing the sun, was now in France and his face was shining in the moon like a sun. People were ready to swear on the Qur'an that they had seen Khomeini's face in the moon. Even the Tudeh Party [the party of "Scientific Socialism"] shared in the [enthusiasm]. Its paper Navid wrote: `Our toiling masses, fighting against world-devouring imperialism headed by the blood-sucking United States, have seen the face of their beloved Imam and leader, Khomeini the Breaker of Idols, in the moon. A few pipsqueaks cannot deny what a whole nation has seen with its own eyes.` [159]

As the revolution gained momentum, even some non-supporters exhibited awe, called him "magnificently clear-minded, single-minded and unswerving."[160] His image was as "absolute, wise, and indispensable leader of the nation"[161]

The Imam, it was generally believed, had shown by his uncanny sweep to power, that he knew how to act in ways which others could not begin to understand. His timing was extraordinary, and his insight into the motivation of others, those around him as well as his enemies, could not be explained as ordinary knowledge. This emergent belief in Khomeini as a divinely guided figure was carefully fostered by the clerics who supported him and spoke up for him in front of the people. [162]

Even many secularists who firmly disapproved of his policies were said to feel the power of his "messianic" appeal.[163] Comparing him to a father figure who retains the enduring loyalty even of children he disapproves of, journalist Afshin Molavi writes of the defenses of Khomeini he's "heard in the most unlikely settings":

A whiskey-drinking professor told an American journalist that Khomeini brought pride back to Iranians. A women's rights activist told me that Khomeini was not the problem; it was his conservative allies who had directed him wrongly. A nationalist war veteran, who held Iran's ruling clerics in contempt, carried with him a picture of `the Imam`. [164]

Another journalist tells the story of how an Iranian who had just gotten done telling her how he wanted his son to leave the country and "repeatedly made the point that life had been better" under the Shah, turned "ashen faced" and speechless upon hearing the 85+-year-old Imam might be dying, pronouncing `This is terrible for my country.`[165]

[

Family and descendants

Khomeini with grandson Hussein Khomeini and granddaughter Zahra Eshraghi.
Khomeini with grandson Hussein Khomeini and granddaughter Zahra Eshraghi.

In 1929, (some say 1931[166]) Khomeini married Batoul Saqafi Khomeini, the 11-year-old[167] daughter of a cleric in Tehran. By all acounts their marriage was harmonious and happy.[168] They had seven children, though only five survived infancy. His daughters all married into either merchant or clerical families, and both his sons entered into religious life. The elder son, Mustafa, is rumored to have been murdered in 1977 while in exile with his father in Najaf, Iraq and Khomeini accused SAVAK of orchestrating it. Ahmad Khomeini, Khomeini's younger son, died in 1995 under mysterious circumstances.

Khomeini's notable grandchildren include:

  • Hasan Khomeini, Khomeini's elder grandson Sayid Hasan Khomeini, son of the Seyyed Ahmad Khomeini, is a cleric and the trustee of Khomeini's shrine.
  • Husain Khomeini, (Sayid Husain Khomeini) Khomeini's other grandson, son of Sayid Mustafa Khomeini, is a mid-level cleric who is strongly against the system of the Islamic Republic. In 2003 he was quoted as saying:
Iranians need freedom now, and if they can only achieve it with American interference I think they would welcome it. As an Iranian, I would welcome it. [169]

In that same year Husain Khomeini visited the United States, where he met figures such as Reza Pahlavi II, the son of the last Shah.[citation needed]

Later that year, Husain returned to Iran after receiving an urgent message from his grandmother. According to Michael Ledeen, quoting "family sources", he was blackmailed into returning.[170]

In 2006, he called for an American invasion and overthrow of the Islamic Republic, telling Al-Arabiyah television station viewers, "If you were a prisoner, what would you do? I want someone to break the prison [doors open]."[171].

Hussein is currently under house arrest in the holy city of Qum.[citation needed]

Another of Khomeini's grandchildren, Ali Eshraghi was first disqulaifed from the 2008 parliamentary elections on grounds of being insufficently loyal to the principles of the Islamic revolution, but later reinstated.[172]

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Works

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See also

v • d • e
Ruhollah Khomeini
Politics
Books
Islamic Government (Velayat-e faqih) · Tahrir-ol-vasyleh · Forty Hadith · Adab as Salat

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References

  1. ^ a b c DeFronzo 2007, p. 286. "born September 24, 1902..."
  2. ^ a b c Karsh 2007, p. 220. "Born on September 24, 1902, into a devout small-town family, Khomeini..."
  3. ^ Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival, Norton, (2006), p.138
  4. ^ a b Khomeini & Algar 2002, p. ix
  5. ^ a b Moin 2000, p. 2
  6. ^ Some sources place Khomeini's birth date on May 17, 1900, or another date in September 1902. See Encyclopedia Britannica.
  7. ^ Moin 2000, pp. 2-3
  8. ^ Moin 2000, p. 3. "Five years or so later, in 1839,... remain in his family for well over a century and a half."
  9. ^ Karsh 2007, p. 220. "...Khomeini lost his father when he was five months old."
  10. ^ Anderson, Raymond H.. "Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader", The New York Times, 1989-06-04. Retrieved on 2007-12-26. 
  11. ^ Moin 2000, pp. 6-8
  12. ^ Daniel 2001, p. 176. "His father was murdered... (in a dispute with a rival family..."
  13. ^ a b c Moin 2000, p. 18
  14. ^ a b Reich 1990, p. 311
  15. ^ a b Milani 1994, p. 85
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  49. ^ Mackay, Iranians (1996), p.277; source: Quoted in Fouad Ajami, The Vanished Imam: Musa al Sadr and the Shia of Lebanon (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), p.25
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  67. ^ (Resalat, 25.3.1988) (quoted on p.69, The Constitution of Iran by Asghar Schirazi, Tauris, 1997
  68. ^ 1980 April 8 - Broadcast call by Khomeini for the pious of Iraq to overthrow Saddam and his regime. Al-Dawa al-Islamiya party in Iraqi is the hoped for catalyst to start rebellion. From: Mackey, The Iranians, (1996), p.317
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  74. ^ Bernard Lewis's comment on Rushdie fatwa in The Crisis of Islam (2003) by Bernard Lewis, p.141-2
  75. ^ Moin, Khomeini, (2000), p.284
  76. ^ "Japanese Translator of Rushdie Book Found Slain", WEISMAN, Steven R. www.nytimes.com, July 13 1991.
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  83. ^ (Khomeini July 1979) [quoted in The Government of God p.111. "see the FBIS for typical broadcasts, especially GBIS-MEA-79-L30, July 5, 1979 v.5 n.130, reporting broadacasts of the National Voice of Iran.]
  84. ^ Gobal Security, Intelligence: Niruyeh Moghavemat Basij - Mobilisation Resistance Force
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  86. ^ Democracy? I meant theocracy By Dr. Jalal Matini, The Iranian, August 5, 2003
  87. ^ Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs (1984), p.61
  88. ^ Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs, (1984), p.111
  89. ^ Massacre 1988 (Pdf)
  90. ^ Memories of a slaughter in Iran
  91. ^ Khomeini fatwa 'led to killing of 30,000 in Iran'
  92. ^ The Millimeter Revolution By ELIZABETH RUBIN .
  93. ^ Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs (1984), p.146
  94. ^ Wright, Last Revolution (2000), p.207
  95. ^ IRAN: Life of Jews Living in Iran
  96. ^ R. Khomeini `The Report Card on Jews Differs from That on the Zionists,` Ettelaat, 11 May 1979]
  97. ^ Jews in Iran Describe a Life of Freedom Despite Anti-Israel Actions by Tehran
  98. ^ "4% belong to the Sunni branch", http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/people/index.html
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  103. ^ Iran Human Rights Documentation Center (2007). A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Baha'is of Iran. Iran Human Rights Documentation Center. Retrieved on 2007-10-06.
  104. ^ from Poll Tax, 8. Tributary conditions, (13), Tahrir al-Vasileh, volume 2, pp. 497-507, Quoted in A Clarification of Questions : An Unabridged Translation of Resaleh Towzih al-Masael by Ayatollah Sayyed Ruhollah Mousavi Khomeini, Westview Press/ Boulder and London, c1984, p.432
  105. ^ Cockroft, James (1979-02-23). "{{{title}}}". Seven Days. 
  106. ^ "U.S. Jews Hold Talks With Khomeini Aide on Outlook for Rights", The New York Times, 1979-02-13. 
  107. ^ source: Kayhan International, May 30, 1983; see also Firuz Kazemzadeh, `The Terror Facing the Baha'is` New York Review of Books, 1982, 29 (8): 43-44.]
  108. ^ Afshari, Reza (2001). Human Rights in Iran: The Abuse of Cultural Relativism. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 132. ISBN 978-0-8122-3605-7. 
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  110. ^ Huge cost of Iranian brain drain By Frances Harrison
  111. ^ Based on the government's own Planning and Budget Organization statistics, from: Jahangir Amuzegar, `The Iranian Economy before and after the Revolution,` Middle East Journal 46, n.3 (summer 1992): 421)
  112. ^ Khomeini's REVERSALS of Promises
  113. ^ {{Spencer, William. The Middle East. Global Studies Series. Eleventh Edition]June 2007}}
  114. ^ Moin, Khomeini (2000), p.312
  115. ^ In the Name of God : The Khomeini Decade by Robin Wright, (1989), p.204
  116. ^ The Islamic Republic Will Be Run By the Most Learned Jurist
  117. ^ Ahmad Khomeini’s letter, in Resalat, cited in The Reign of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution, rev. ed. by Shaul Bakhash, p.282
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  126. ^ Redirect
  127. ^ 1942 book/pamphet Kashf al-Asrar quoted in Islam and Revolution
  128. ^ 1970 book Hukumat Islamiyyah or Islamic Government, quoted in Islam and Revolution
  129. ^ Hamid Algar, `Development of the Concept of velayat-i faqih since the Islamic Revolution in Iran,` paper presented at London Conference on wilayat al-faqih, in June, 1988] [p.135-8] Also Ressalat, Tehran, 7 January 1988, Khomeini on how Laws in Iran will strictly adhere to God's perfect and unchanging divine law
  130. ^ The Failure of Political Islam by Olivier Roy, translated by Carol Volk, Harvard University Press, 1994, p.173-4
  131. ^ Ganji, Sorush and Mesbah Yazdi(Persian)
  132. ^ The principles of Islamic republic from viewpoint of Imam Khomeini in the speeches of the leader(Persian)
  133. ^ About Islamic republic(Persian)
  134. ^ Ayatollah Khomeini and the Contemporary Debate on Freedom
  135. ^ "Democracy? I meant theocracy", by Dr. Jalal Matini, Translation & Introduction by Farhad Mafie, August 5, 2003, The Iranian, http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2003/August/Khomeini/
  136. ^ Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs (1984), p.73
  137. ^ Khomeini, Islam and Revolution, (1982), p.56
  138. ^ Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival Norton, (2006), p.137
  139. ^ Bayan, No.4 (1990), p.8)
  140. ^ Iran president bans Western music
  141. ^ Nasr, Vali The Shia Revival, Norton, 2006, p.138
  142. ^ wright, Sacred Rage, (2001), p.28, 33,
  143. ^ for example the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing see:Hizb'allah in Lebanon : The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis Magnus Ranstorp, Department of International Relations University of St. Andrews St. Martins Press, New York, 1997, p.54, 117
  144. ^ in Qom, Iran, October 22, 1979, quoted in, The Shah and the Ayatollah : Iranian Mythology and Islamic Revolution by Fereydoun Hoveyda, Westport, Conn. : Praeger, 2003, p.88
  145. ^ p.47, Wright. source: Speech at Feyziyeh Theological School, August 24, 1979; reproduced in Rubin, Barry and Judith Colp Rubin, Anti-American Terrorism and the Middle East: A Documentary Reader, Oxford University Press, 2002, p.34
  146. ^ Roy, The Failure of Political Islam. 1994, p.175
  147. ^ source: Meeting in Qom "Broadcast by radio Iran from Qom on 20 August 1979." quoted in Taheri, The Spirit of Allah, (1985) p.259
  148. ^ Taheri, The Spirit of Allah (1985), p. 49
  149. ^ According to a daughter quoted in In the Name of God by Robin Wright c1989, p.45
  150. ^ Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini, (2001), p.53
  151. ^ Mackay, Iranians (198?) p.224
  152. ^ from a meeting in Qom "Broadcast by radio Iran from Qom on 20 August 1979.")(Taheri, The Spirit of Allah (1985), p.259
  153. ^ Personal communications from Dr. Mansur Farhang, a biographer and supporter of Khomeini who was the former Iranian representative at the United Nations, with Ervand Abrahamian. Quoted in Abrahamian, Ervand, Khomeinism : Essays on the Islamic Republic University of California Press, (1993)
  154. ^ fatwa #83 from A Clarification of Questions : An Unabridged Translation of Resaleh Towzih al-Masael'
    by Ayatollah Sayyed Ruhollah Mousavi Khomeini, Translated by J. Borujerdi, with a Foreword by Michael M. J. Fischer and Mehdi Abedi, Westview Press/ Boulder and London c1984, p.48
  155. ^ Mottahedeh, Roy, The Mantle of the Prophet : Religion and Politics in Iran, One World, Oxford, 1985, 2000, p.383
  156. ^ (Mackay Iranians, p.277. Source: Quoted in Fouad Ajami, The Vanished Imam: Musa al Sadr and the Shia of Lebanon (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), p.25
  157. ^ Moin, Khomeini (2000), p.201
  158. ^ Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival, Norton, (2006), p.131
  159. ^ source: Navid n.28][Taheri, The Spirit of Allah, p.238
  160. ^ Harney, The Priest and the King (1998) p.173-4
  161. ^ Benard/Khalilzad "The Government of God", 1984, p.121
  162. ^ Moin Khomeini, (2000), p.297
  163. ^ Wright, In the Name of God, (1989) (p.21-22)
  164. ^ Molavi, The Soul of Iran, (2005), p.256
  165. ^ In the Name of God : The Khomeini Decade by Robin Wright c1989, p.21-22
  166. ^ Taheri, The Spirit of Allah (1985), p. 90-1
  167. ^ Taheri, The Spirit of Allah (1985), p. 90-1
  168. ^ Taheri, The Spirit of Allah (1985), p. 90-1
  169. ^ "Make Iran Next, Says Ayatollah's Grandson", Jamie Wilson, August 10, 2003, The Observer
  170. ^ Veiled Threats Lure Ayatollah's Grandson Home By Michael A. Ledeen, January 6, 2004
  171. ^ Ayatollah's grandson calls for US overthrow of Iran, By PHILIP SHERWELL 19/06/2006
  172. ^ Khomeini grandson returns to poll, 13 February 2008,

[

Bilbliography

  • Brumberg, Daniel (2001), Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226077586 
  • Daniel, Elton L. (2001), The History of Iran, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313307318 
  • DeFronzo, James (2007), Revolutions And Revolutionary Movements, Westview Press, ISBN 0813343542 
  • Karsh, Efraim (2007), Islamic Imperialism: A History, Yale University Press, ISBN 0300122632 
  • Khomeini, Ruhollah & Algar, Hamid (2002), Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist, Alhoda UK, ISBN 9643354997 
  • Keddie, Nikkie R. (2003), Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution, Yale University Press, ISBN 0300098561 
  • Milani, Mohsen M. (1994), The Making of Iran's Islamic Revolution: From Monarchy to Islamic Republic, Westview Press, ISBN 0813384761 
  • Moin, Baqer (2000), Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0312264909 
  • Rāhnamā, 'Ali (1994), Pioneers of Islamic Revival, Macmillan, ISBN 1856492540 
  • Reich, Bernard (1990), Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313262136 
  • Willett, Edward C. ;Ayatollah Khomeini, 2004, Publisher:The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 0823944654
  • Bakhash, Shaul (1984). The Reign of the Ayatollahs : Iran and the Islamic Revolution. New York: Basic Books. 
  • Harney, Desmond (1998). The priest and the king : an eyewitness account of the Iranian revolution. I.B. Tauris. 
  • Khomeini, Ruhollah (1981). in Algar, Hamid (translator and editor): Islam and Revolution : Writing and Declarations of Imam Khomeini. Berkeley: Mizan Press. 
  • Khomeini, Ruhollah (1980). Sayings of the Ayatollah Khomeini : political, philosophical, social, and religious. Bantam. 
  • Mackey, Sandra (1996). The Iranians : Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation. Dutton. ISBN 0525940057. 

[

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as Shah of Iran		 Supreme Leader of Iran
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