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Nazism



Various far right politicians and political parties in Europe welcomed the rise of fascism and the Nazis, out of an intense aversion towards communism. They saw Hitler as the savior of Western civilization and of capitalism[citation needed] against Bolshevism. During the late 1930s and the 1940s, the Nazis were supported by the Falange movement in Spain, and by political and military figures who formed the government of Vichy France. The Legion of French Volunteers against Bolshevism (LVF) and other anti-Soviet fighting formations formed.

Nazi economic policy

Further information: Economics of fascism

Nazi economic practice concerned itself with immediate domestic issues and separately with ideological conceptions of international economics.

Domestic economic policy was narrowly concerned with four major goals to eliminate Germany’s issues:

  • Elimination of unemployment.
  • Rapid and substantial rearmament.
  • Protection against the resurgence of hyper-inflation
  • Expansion of production of consumer goods to improve middle and lower-class living standards.

All of these policy goals were intended to address the perceived shortcomings of the Weimar Republic and to solidify domestic support for the party. In this, the party was successful. Between 1933 and 1936 the German Gross National Product (GNP) increased by an average annual rate of 9.5%, and the rate for industry alone rose by 17.2%.

This expansion propelled the German economy out of a deep depression and into full employment in less than four years. Public consumption during the same period increased by 18.7%, while private consumption increased by 3.6% annually. According to the historian Richard Evans, prior to the outbreak of war the German “economy had recovered from the Depression faster than its counterparts in other countries. Germany’s foreign debt had been stabilized, interest rates had fallen to half their 1932 level, the stock exchange had recovered from the Depression, the gross national product had risen by 81 per cent over the same period…. Inflation and unemployment had been conquered.”[82]

German marriages increased from about 511,000 in 1932 to 611,000 in 1936, while births rose from 921,000 births in 1932 to 1,280,000 in 1936. Suicides committed by young people under 20 dropped by 80% between 1933 and 1939.[83]

Internationally, the Nazi Party believed that an international banking cabal was behind the global depression of the 1930s. Control of this cabal, which had grown to a position where it controlled both Europe and the United States, was identified with an elite and powerful group of Jews. Nevertheless, a number of people believed that this was part of an ongoing plot by the Jewish people, as a whole, to achieve global domination. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which began its circulation in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, were said to have confirmed this, already showing “evidence” that the Bolshevik takeover in Russia was in accordance with one of the protocols. Broadly speaking, the existence of large international banking or merchant banking organizations was well known at this time. Many of these banking organizations were able to exert influence upon nation states by extension or withholding of credit. This influence is not limited to the small states that preceded the creation of the German Empire as a nation state in the 1870s, but is noted in most major histories of all European powers from the sixteenth century onward. Nevertheless, after the Great Depression, this libelous and unverified manuscript took on an important role in Nazi Germany, thus providing another link in the Nazis ideological motivation for the destruction of that group in the Holocaust.

The Nazis viewed private property rights as conditional upon the mode of use.[84] If the property was not being used to further Nazi goals, it could be nationalized. Government takeovers and threats of takeovers were used to encourage complance with government production plans, even if following these plans cost profits for companies. For example, the owner of the Junkers (aircraft) factory refused to follow the government’s directives, whereupon the Nazis took over the plant, placed the owner Hugo Junkers under house arrest, then compensated him for his loss.

Central planning of agriculture was a prominent feature. In order to tie farmers to the land, the selling of agricultural land was prohibited. Farm ownership was nominally private, but ownership in the sense of having discretion over operations and claims on residual income were taken away. This was achieved by granting monopoly rights to marketing boards to control production and prices through a quota system. Quotas were also set for industrial goods, including pig iron, steel, aluminum, magnesium, gunpowder, explosives, synthetic rubber, all kinds of fuel, and electricity. A compulsory cartel law was enacted in 1936 which allowed the Minister of Economics to make existing cartels compulsory and permanent and to force industries to form cartels where none existed, though these were eventually decreed out of existence by 1943 with the objective being to replace them with more authoritarian bodies.[85]

In place of ordinary profit incentive to guide the economy, investment was guided through regulation to accord to the needs of the State. The profit incentive for business owners was retained, though greatly modified through various profit-fixing schemes: “Fixing of profits, not their suppression, was the official policy of the Nazi party.” However the function of profit in automatically guiding allocation of investment and unconsciously directing the course of the economy was replaced with economic planning by Nazi government agencies.[86] Government financing eventually came to dominate the investment process, which the proportion of private securities issued falling from over half of the total in 1933 and 1934 to approximately 10 percent in 1935–1938. Heavy taxes on business profits limited self-financing of firms. The largest firms were mostly exempt from taxes on profits, however government control of these were extensive enough to leave “only the shell of private ownership.”

Taxes and subsidies were also used in order to direct the economy. Underlying economic policy was the use of terror as an incentive to agree and comply. Nazi language indicated death or concentration camp for any business owner who pursued his own self interest instead of the ends of the State.[87]

It is often regarded that businesses were private property in name but not in substance. Chritoph Buchheim and Jonas Scherner dissent, saying that despite controls by the state firms still had significant freedom in planning their own production and investment activities, though they admit that the economy was state directed.[88]

Many companies dealt with the Third Reich: Volkswagen was created by the German state and was heavily supported by the Nazis; Opel employed Jewish slave labour to run their industrial plants; Daimler-Benz used prisoners of war as slaves to run their industrial plants; Krupp made gas chambers; Bayer worked with the Nazis as a small part of the enormous IG Farben chemistry monopoly; and Hugo Boss designed the SS uniforms (and admitted to this in 1997). There has been some disagreement about whether IBM had dealt with the Nazis to create a cataloguing system, the Hollerith punch-card machines, which the Nazis used to file information on those who they killed.[89] Some companies that dealt with the Third Reich claim to have not known the truth of what the Nazis were doing, and some foreign companies claimed to have lost control of their German branches when Hitler was in power.[90][91]

Types of Nazi supporters

German Nazis: Though Nazi Party membership was carefully regulated (and even closed off at a certain point), many non-affiliated citizens of the Nazi State described themselves as dedicated Nazis. After the war, the most prominent Nazis were convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials, where 21 were executed. Party members—even those who were ordinary citizens—experienced a post-war “purge” where they were stripped of property, assets and often forced to abandon their positions. As part of Nazi Germany, Austria also experienced denazification, though this process occurred to a smaller degree only much later.

Foreign supporters: During and prior to World War II, there were numerous people outside of the German Reich who became adherents to the Nazi ideology. Some foreign born ethnic Germans had ventured from their homelands to become citizens of the Nazi State in the pre-war years. This was particularly the case around São Paulo, where people had left in the thousands despite the fact that, at the same time, efforts were being made to draw the Germany-born population into the region. Other Nazi supporters, such as William Joyce and the “Lord Haw Haw” cast, took flight from Britain, especially after the downfall of the British Union of Fascists. Similarly, parties supportive of the Nazis had failed to influence their own countries. Some people in the German-American Bund were incarcerated during the war, as were potential Nazi supporters in the U.S.

Post-war Nazis: George Lincoln Rockwell, a former U.S. Navy lieutenant commander, became a prominent Nazi in the 1950s and formed the American Nazi Party. Some became admirers or sympathized with the plight of Nazi Germany because they saw it as the defender of Oswald Spengler’s “West”. From this point of view, the Nazi State was brought to its knees trying to solidify a self-sufficient Europe and ward off the influence of the Soviet Union and the United States, political and otherwise. Spenglerians such as Francis Parker Yockey supported this view, and his magnum opus, Imperium, has sold over twenty thousand copies since 1948. Essentially, Yockey was convinced that Nazi Germany was a step towards Spengler’s Imperium, and during the Cold War, Yockey dedicated his life to promoting a general European rebellion against the overlordship of both the Soviet Union and the United States.

Esoteric Nazis: Some individuals have been fascinated by National Socialist philosophy in a spiritual or esoteric direction, including: Savitri Devi of France, Julius Evola of Italy, and Miguel Serrano of Chile.

Nazism in popular culture

Further information: Hitler in popular culture & Nazi chic

The term Nazi has become a generic term of abuse in popular culture, as have other Third Reich terms such as Führer (often spelled differently in English-speaking countries). Related terms (such as fascist or Gestapo or Hitler) are sometimes used to describe any people or behaviours that are viewed as thuggish, authoritarian, or extremist. Phrases such as grammar Nazi, feminazi, open source Nazi, and parking enforcement Nazi, are sometimes used in the United States. These uses are offensive to some, as indicated by the controversy in the mainstream media over the Seinfeld “Soup Nazi” episode. These types of terms are used frequently enough to inspire Godwin's Law.

Some people strongly associate the blackletter typefaces (e.g. Fraktur or Schwabacher) with Nazi propaganda (although the typeface is much older, and its usage was banned by the Nazi German government in 1941).[92] [93] In films such as the Indiana Jones series, Nazis are often portrayed as villains, whom the heroes battle without mercy. Video game website IGN declared Nazis to be the most memorable video game villains ever.[94] The main antagonists in the manga Hellsing are vampiric Nazis.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ National Socialism Encyclopædia Britannica.
  2. ^ National Socialism Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007
  3. ^ Walter John Raymond. Dictionary of Politics. (1992). ISBN 155618008X p.327
  4. ^ National Socialism The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07.
  5. ^ Fritzsche, Peter. 1998. Germans into Nazis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
  6. ^ Kele, Max H. (1972). Nazis and Workers: National Socialist Appeals to German Labor, 1919–1933. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
  7. ^ Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914–45. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
  8. ^ Eatwell, Roger. 1996. “On Defining the ‘Fascist Minimum,’ the Centrality of Ideology”, Journal of Political Ideologies 1(3):303–19. Eatwell, Roger. 1997. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane.
  9. ^ a b The German name of the Nazi Party (German Workers’ Party) is the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, pronounced /natsjo'naːlzotsiaːˌlistiʃə 'dɔytʃə 'arbaitɐparˌtai/ (with Arbeiter meaning “worker”).
  10. ^ Fritzsche, Peter. 1998. Germans into Nazis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; Eatwell, Roger, Fascism, A History, Viking/Penguin, 1996, pp.xvii-xxiv, 21, 26–31, 114–140, 352. Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, Routledge, London.
  11. ^ Davies, Peter; Dereck Lynch (2003). Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge, p.103. ISBN 0415214955.
  12. ^ a b Hayek, Friedrich (1944). The Road to Serfdom. Routledge. ISBN 0415253896.
  13. ^ Hoover, Calvin B. (March 1935). “The Paths of Economic Change: Contrasting Tendencies in the Modern World”, The American Economic Review, Vol. 25, No. 1, Supplement, Papers and Proceedings of the Forty-seventh Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association, pp.13–20.
  14. ^ Morgan, Philip (2003). Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945. Routledge, p.168. ISBN 0415169429.
  15. ^ Jones, Prudence, and Nigel Pennick, 1997, A History of Pagan Europe (London, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-15804-4), pp. 196-197.
  16. ^ Flowers, Stephen E., and Michael Moynihan, 2007, The Secret King: The Myth and Reality of Nazi Occultism (Feral House/Dominion, ISBN 978-1-932595-25-3), pp. 28, 30-31.
  17. ^ Höhne, Heinz, 1969, The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS (Martin Secker & Warburg), pp. 138, 143-5, 156-57.
  18. ^ Online documentation with sources and photos
  19. ^ Hitler's speaches about Christianity
  20. ^ Online document with photos and sources
  21. ^ Photo gallery on Christianity and Nazism providing evidence of both Christian symbiolism in Nazi doctrine and relation between Christian authorities and Nazi ones
  22. ^ The term Sozi (/zoːtsi/) is short for the German word Sozialdemokrat (pronounced /zo'tsjaːldemoˌkraːt/), meaning social democrat.
  23. ^ a b Franz H. Mautner (1944). "Nazi und Sozi". Modern Language Notes 59 (2): 93–100. doi:10.2307/2910599. 
  24. ^ “Lexicon: Dolchstosslegende” (definition), www.icons-multimedia.com, 2005, webpage: DolchSL.
  25. ^ “THHP Short Essay: Who was the Final Solution” Holocaust-History.org, July 2004, webpage: HoloHist-Final: notes that Hermann Göering used the term in his order of July 31, 1941 to Reinhard Heydrich of Reich Main Security.
  26. ^ “Nazi Party” (overview), Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006, Britannica.com webpage: Britannica-NaziParty.
  27. ^ a b c d e “February 24, 1920: Nazi Party Established” (history), Yad Vashem, The Holocaust Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Remembrance Authority, 2004, webpage: YV-Party.
  28. ^ “Australian Memories of the Holocaust” (history), Glossary, definition of Nazi (party), N.S.W. Board of Jewish Education, New South Wales, Australia, webpage: HolocaustComAu-Glossary.
  29. ^ “Hitler Youth” (history), The History Place, 1999, webpage: HPlace-HitlerYouth.
  30. ^ a b Kriegsverbrechen der alliierten Siegermächte (“War Crimes of Allied Powers”), Pit Pietersen, ISBN 3-8334-5045-2, 2006, page 151, webpage: GoogleBooks-Pietersen: describes Hitler as “Propagandachef”[citation needed] and becoming chairman on July 29, 1921.
  31. ^ a b c Ian Kershaw, Hitler: A Profile in Power, (London, 1991, rev. 2001), first chapter
  32. ^ Ian Kershaw, 1991, chapter I
  33. ^ Ernst Nolte, Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche, München 1963, ISBN 3-492-02448-3
  34. ^ cf. Roger Griffin, The Blackwell Dictionary of Social Thought, in Griffin, International Fascism, 35f., and Anthony Paxton, Anatomy of Fascism, London 2004, p.218, and Stanley Payne, A History of Fascism 1914–1945, University of Wisconsin Press 1995, p. 14
  35. ^ Enzo Collotti, Race Law in Italy, in: Christoph Dipper et.al., Faschismus und Faschismen im Vergleich, Vierow 1998. ISBN 3-89498-045-1
  36. ^ Laqueuer, 1996 p. 223; Eatwell, 1996, p. 39; Griffin, 1991, 2000, pp. 185-201; Weber, [1964] 1982, p. 8; Payne (1995), Fritzsche (1990), Laclau (1977), and Reich (1970).
  37. ^ called “transnational” Michael Mann, see references
  38. ^ Goodrick-Clarke 1985: 149 and 2003: 114.
  39. ^ Hitler, Adolf (1961). Hitler's Secret Book (in English). New York: Grove Press, pp. 8–9, 17–18. ISBN 0394620038. OCLC 9830111. “Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch State. The exposure of the sick, weak, deformed children, in short, their destruction, was more decent and in truth a thousand times more humane than the wretched insanity of our day which preserves the most pathological subject.” 
  40. ^ Mike Hawkins (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: nature as model and nature as threat (in English). Cambridge University Press, pp. 276. ISBN 052157434X. OCLC 34705047. 
  41. ^ a b Goebbels, Joseph; Mjölnir (1932). Die verfluchten Hakenkreuzler. Etwas zum Nachdenken. Munich: Franz Eher Nachfolger. English translation: Those Damned Nazis.
  42. ^ Bealey, Frank; et.al. (1999). Elements of Political Science. Edinburgh University Press, p.202.
  43. ^ Joachim C. Fest. Hitler, Harvest Books, Book 5 Chapter 3
  44. ^ Harry Oosterhuis (1997). "Medicine, Male Bonding and Homosexuality in Nazi Germany". Journal of Contemporary History 32 (2): 187–205. . Homosexual behavior had been illegal in Germany since the adoption of Paragraph 175 of the German Criminal Code in 1871, but enforcement was capricious, even under the early years of the Nazi regime.
  45. ^ William L. Shirer, in The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (Touchstone Edition) (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), p. 214, quotes Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch that “rearmament was too serious and difficult a business to permit the participation of peculators, drunkards and homosexuals.”
  46. ^ Shirer, Rise and Fall, pp. 224–225. For Shirer’s overall discussion of “The Blood Purge of June 30, 1934,” including the trumped-up allegations of a planned coup d'êtat by Roehm and the simultaneous negative shift in Nazi policy toward homosexuals, see Shirer’s pp. 213–226.
  47. ^ The Holocaust Chronicle, Publications International Ltd., p. 108.
  48. ^ Plant, Richard, The Pink Triangle: The Nazi War Against Homosexuals, Owl Books, 1988, ISBN 0-8050-0600-1.
  49. ^ Steigmann-Gall
  50. ^ The Great Scandal: Christianity’s Role in the Rise of the Nazis
  51. ^ Scholarship for Martin Luther’s 1543 treatise, On the Jews and their Lies, exercising influence on Germany’s attitude:
    • Wallmann, Johannes. “The Reception of Luther’s Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century”, Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97. Wallmann writes: “The assertion that Luther’s expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented anti-Semitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion.”
    • Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006; see chapter 4 “The Germanies from Luther to Hitler,” pp. 105–151.
    • Hillerbrand, Hans J. “Martin Luther,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: “[H]is strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history.”
  52. ^ Ellis, Marc H. “Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism”, Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004, slide 14. Also see Nuremberg Trial Proceedings, Vol. 12, p. 318, Avalon Project, Yale Law School, April 19, 1946.
  53. ^ Wallmann, Johannes. “The Reception of Luther’s Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century”, Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1, Spring 1987, 1:72-97.
  54. ^ Bernd Nellessen, “Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung,” in Büttner (ed), Die Deutchschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich, p. 265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners (Vintage, 1997).
  55. ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700. New York: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666–667.
  56. ^ Francis R. Nicosia. Business and Industry in Nazi Germany, Berghan Books, p. 43
  57. ^ Frank Bealey & others. Elements of Political Science (Edinburgh University Press, 1999), 202
  58. ^ William Kessler (Dec., 1938), “The German Corporation Law of 1937”, The American Economic Review Vol. 28, No. 4: 653–662 
  59. ^ Turner, Henry Ashby (1985). German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler. Oxford University Press, pp.114. ISBN 0195034929. 
  60. ^ Lee, Stephen J. (1996), Weimar and Nazi Germany, Harcourt Heinemann, page 28
  61. ^ Henry A. Turner, “German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler”, Oxford University Press, 1985. p.62
  62. ^ Turner, Henry A. (1985). German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler, Oxford University Press, p.77. ISBN 0195034929.
  63. ^ Hitler’s speech on May 1, 1927. Cited in: Toland, John (1976). Adolf Hitler. Doubleday, p.306. 
  64. ^ Carsten, Francis Ludwig (1982).The Rise of Fascism, 2nd ed. University of California Press, p.137. Quoting: Hilter, A., Sunday Express, September 28, 1930.
  65. ^ Calic, Edouard (1968). Ohne Maske. Frankfurter Societäts-Druckerei, pp.11, 32–33. Translated by R.H. Barry as Unmasked. Two Confidential Interviews with Hitler in 1931., London: Chatto & Windus, 1971. ISBN 0701116420. Hitler’s confidential 1931 interviews were with Richard Breiting, editor of the Leipziger Neueste Nachrichten. Cited in: Bel, Germà (2006). Against The Mainstream: Nazi Privatization In 1930s Germany, Research Institute of Applied Economics 2006 Working Papers 2006/7, p.14. Also cited in Richard Pipes, Property and Freedom, 1998, p.416; which is cited in Richard Allen Epstein, Principles for a Free Society, De Capo Press, p.168. ISBN 0738208299.
  66. ^ Hayek, Friedrich (1944). The Road to Serfdom. Routledge, p.31. ISBN 0415253896.
  67. ^ Hitler, A.; transl. Norman Cameron, R. H. Stevens; intro. H. R. Trevor-Roper (2000). "March 24, 1942", Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944: His Private Conversations. Enigma Books, pp.162–163. ISBN 1929631057. 
  68. ^ Powell, Phillip Wayne (1985). Tree of Hate, p.48. ISBN 0465087507. 
  69. ^ Fodor, M.W. (1936-02-05). The Spread of Hitlerism. The Nation p.156. New Deal Network. Retrieved on 2008-04-05.
  70. ^ Stanley Payne, A History of Fascism,, Madison:UP Wisconsin, 1995, p.14f.
  71. ^ a b Peter Levenda, Unholy Alliance: A History of the Nazi Involvement With the Occult, 2002 2nd edition ISBN 0-8264-1409-5
  72. ^ Goodrick-Clarke 1985: 150–51.
  73. ^ http://emperors-clothes.com/vatican/cpix.htm
  74. ^ A very complex topic due to a Sternhell-Wippermann disagreement about rejecting comparisons of 1930s totalitarian movements. cf. Bernd Weisbrod, “Gewalt in der Politik: Zur politischen Kultur Deutschlands zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen,” in: Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht (GWU) 43 (1992), pp.113–124
  75. ^ The Green and the Brown — Cambridge University Press
  76. ^ Amazon.com: How Green Were the Nazis?: Nature, Environment, and Nation in the Third Reich (Ecology & History): Books: Franz-Josef Bruggemeier,Mark Cioc,Thomas Zeller
  77. ^ The Green and the Brown: A History of Conservation in Nazi Germany by Frank Uekoetter
  78. ^ Wilko Graf von Hardenberg: Review of Franz-Josef Brueggemeier, Marc Cioc, and Thomas Zeller, eds, How Green Were the Nazis?: Nature, Environment, and Nation in the Third Reich. In: H-Environment, H-Net Reviews, October, 2006.
  79. ^ Proctor, R.N.: The Nazi War on Cancer
  80. ^ Hannah Arendt, Elemente der Ursprünge totalitärer Herrschaft = The Origins of Totalitarianism, New York 1952, Bern 1955
  81. ^ Michael Mann, Fascists, CUP 2004, p.13.
  82. ^ Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933–1939, Penguin Press, 2005, p. 409)
  83. ^ John Lukacs, Washington Post’s Book World, January 29, 2006; Page BW12)
  84. ^ Peter Temin (November 1991), Economic History Review, New Series 44, No.4: 573–593 
  85. ^ Philip C. Newman (Aug. 1948), “Key German Cartels under the Nazi Regime”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics Vol. 62, No. 4: 576–595 
  86. ^ Arthur Scheweitzer (Nov., 1946), “Profits Under Nazi Planning”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics Vol. 61, No. 1: 5 
  87. ^ Peter Temin (November 1991), Economic History Review, New Series 44, No.4: 573–593 
  88. ^ Christoph Buchheim (27Jun2006), “The Role of Private Property in the Nazi Economy: The Case of Industry”, The Journal of Economic History: 390–416 
  89. ^ Probing IBM’s Nazi connection
  90. ^ Ford and the Führer. Retrieved on 2007-08-20.
  91. ^ The Awful Truth | Sal vs BMW
  92. ^ NAZI and Fraktur
  93. ^ Schwabach SPD
  94. ^ IGN: Top 10 Tuesday: Most Memorable Villains

Further reading

External links

v • d • e
Forms of Government and Methods of Rule: Autocratic and Authoritarian
Autocratic
Other Authoritarian
Totalitarian




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