Finance          Automotive          Computers          Health          Shopping          Sports         News          Reference           Print Facts in English - BCUZ.COMlos hechos en Español

Lion



For more details on this topic, see Lions in popular culture.
The warrior goddess Sekhmet, shown with her sun disk and cobra crown
The warrior goddess Sekhmet, shown with her sun disk and cobra crown

The lion has been an icon for humanity for thousands of years, appearing in cultures across Europe, Asia, and Africa. Despite incidents of attacks on humans, lions have enjoyed a positive depiction in culture as strong but noble. A common depiction is their representation as "king of the jungle" or "king of the beasts"; hence, the lion has been a popular symbol of royalty and stateliness,[161] as well as a symbol of bravery; it is featured in several fables of the sixth century BC Greek storyteller Aesop.[162]

Representations of lions date back 32,000 years; the lion-headed ivory carving from Vogelherd cave in the Swabian Alb in southwestern Germany has been determined to be about 32,000 years old from the Aurignacian culture.[14] Two lions were depicted mating in the Chamber of Felines in 15,000-year-old Paleolithic cave paintings in the Lascaux caves. Cave lions are also depicted in the Chauvet Cave, discovered in 1994; this has been dated at 32,000 years of age,[24] though it may be of similar or younger age to Lascaux.[163]

Ancient Egypt venerated the lioness (the fierce hunter) as their war deities and among those in the Egyptian pantheon are, Bast, Mafdet, Menhit, Pakhet, Sekhmet, Tefnut, and the Sphinx; [161] Among the Egyptian pantheon also are sons of these goddesses such as, Maahes, and, as attested by Egyptians as a Nubian deity, Dedun.[164][165]

The Lion Gate of Mycenae (detail)—two lionesses flank the central column that represents a goddess—c. 1300 BC renovation of an existing structure that was demolished to build the new
The Lion Gate of Mycenae (detail)—two lionesses flank the central column that represents a goddess—c. 1300 BC renovation of an existing structure that was demolished to build the new

Careful examination of the lion deities noted in many ancient cultures reveal that many are lioness also. Admiration for the co-operative hunting strategies of lionesses was evident in very ancient times. Most of the lion gates depict lionesses. The Nemean lion was symbolic in Ancient Greece and Rome, represented as the constellation and zodiac sign Leo, and described in mythology, where its skin was borne by the hero Heracles.[166]

The emblem of Jerusalem is a lion standing in front of the Western Wall and flanked by olive branches.
The emblem of Jerusalem is a lion standing in front of the Western Wall and flanked by olive branches.

The lion is the biblical emblem of the tribe of Judah and later the Kingdom of Judah. It is contained within Jacob's blessing to his fourth son in the penultimate chapter of the Book of Genesis, "Judah is a lion's whelp; On prey, my son have you grown. He crouches, lies down like a lion, like the king of beasts—who dare rouse him?" (Genesis 49:9[167]). In the modern state of Israel, the lion remains the symbol of the capital city of Jerusalem, emblazoned on both the flag and coat of arms of the city.

The lion was a prominent symbol in both the Old Babylonian and Neo-Babylonian Empire periods. The classic Babylonian lion motif, found as a statue, carved or painted on walls, is often referred to as the striding lion of Babylon. It is in Babylon that the biblical Daniel is said to have been delivered from the lion's den.[168] Such symbolism was appropriated by Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq for their Lion of Babylon tank, with the technology adapted from a Russian model. Narasimha ("man-lion") is described as an incarnation (avatara) of Vishnu within the Puranic texts of Hinduism;[169] who takes the form of half-man/half-lion, having a human torso and lower body, but with a lion-like face and claws.[170] it is worshiped as "Lion God" thus Indian or Asiatic lions which were commonly found throughout most of India in ancient times are considered sacred by all Hindus in India.

Singh is an ancient Indian vedic name meaning "lion" (Asiatic lion), dating back over 2000 years to ancient India. It was originally only used by Rajputs a Hindu Kshatriya or military caste in India. After the birth of the Khalsa brotherhood in 1699, the Sikhs also adopted the name "Singh" due to the wishes of Guru Gobind Singh. Along with millions of Hindu Rajputs today, it is also used by over 20 million Sikhs worldwide.[171][172]

Found famously on numerous flags and coats of arms all across Asia and Europe, the Asiatic lions also stand firm on the National Emblem of India.[173].

"Bharat Mata" ("Mother India"), National personification of India, depicted with an Asiatic/Indian lion at her side
"Bharat Mata" ("Mother India"), National personification of India, depicted with an Asiatic/Indian lion at her side
Flag of Sri Lanka
Flag of Sri Lanka

Farther south on the Indian subcontinent, the Asiatic lion is symbolic for the Sinhalese,[174] Sri Lanka's ethnic majority; the term derived from the Indo-Aryan Sinhala, meaning the "lion people" or "people with lion blood", while a sword wielding lion is the central figure on the national flag of Sri Lanka.[175]

The Asiatic lion is a common motif in Chinese art. They were first used in art during the late Spring and Autumn Period (fifth or sixth century BC), and became much more popular during the Han Dynasty (206 BC – AD 220), when imperial guardian lions started to be placed in front of imperial palaces for protection. Because lions have never been native to China, early depictions were somewhat unrealistic; after the introduction of Buddhist art to China in the Tang Dynasty (after the sixth century AD), lions were usually depicted without wings, their bodies became thicker and shorter, and their manes became curly.[176] The lion dance is a form of traditional dance in Chinese culture in which performers mimic a lion's movements in a lion costume, often with musical accompaniment from cymbals, drums and gongs. They are performed at Chinese New Year, the August Moon Festival and other celebratory occasions for good luck.[177]

The island nation of Singapore (Singapura) derives its name from the Malay words singa (lion) and pura (city), which in turn is from the Tamil-Sanskrit சிங்க singa सिंह siṃha and पुर புர pura, which is cognate to the Greek πόλις, pólis.[178] According to the Malay Annals, this name was given by a fourteenth century Sumatran Malay prince named Sang Nila Utama, who, on alighting the island after a thunderstorm, spotted an auspicious beast on shore that his chief minister identified as a lion (Asiatic lion).[179] Recent studies of Singapore indicate that lions have never lived there, and the beast seen by Sang Nila Utama was more likely to have been a tiger.[citation needed]

"Aslan" or "Arslan (Ottoman ارسلان arslān and اصلان aṣlān) is the Turkish and Mongolian word for "lion". It was used as a title by a number of Seljuk and Ottoman rulers, including Alp Arslan and Ali Pasha, and is a Turkic/Iranian name.

Lion rampant on the royal coat of arms of Scotland
Lion rampant on the royal coat of arms of Scotland

"Lion" was the nickname of medieval warrior rulers with a reputation for bravery, such as Richard I of England, known as Richard the Lionheart,[161], Henry the Lion (German: Heinrich der Löwe), Duke of Saxony and Robert III of Flanders nicknamed "The Lion of Flanders"—a major Flemish national icon up to the present. Lions are frequently depicted on coats of arms, either as a device on shields themselves, or as supporters. (The lioness[180] is much more infrequent.) The formal language of heraldry, called blazon, employs French terms to describe the images precisely. Such descriptions specified whether lions or other creatures were "rampant" or "passant", that is whether they were rearing or crouching.[181] The lion is used as a symbol of sporting teams, from national soccer teams such as England, Scotland and Singapore to famous clubs such as the Detroit Lions[182] of the NFL, Chelsea[183] and Aston Villa of the English Premier League,[184] (and the Premiership itself) to a host of smaller clubs around the world. Villa sport a Scottish Lion Rampant on their crest, as do Rangers and Dundee United of the Scottish Premier League.

The lion is a popular symbol and mascot of high schools, colleges and universities throughout the United States. This statue is on the campus of the University of North Alabama.
The lion is a popular symbol and mascot of high schools, colleges and universities throughout the United States. This statue is on the campus of the University of North Alabama.

Lions continue to feature in modern literature, from the messianic Aslan in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and following books from the Narnia series written by C. S. Lewis,[185] to the comedic Cowardly Lion in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.[186] The advent of moving pictures saw the continued presence of lion symbolism; one of the most iconic and widely recognised lions is Leo the Lion, the mascot for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) studios, which has been in use since the 1920s.[187] The 1960s saw the appearance of what is possibly the most famous lioness, the Kenyan animal Elsa in the movie Born Free,[188] based on the true-life international bestselling book of the same title.[189] The lion's role as King of the Beasts has been used in cartoons, from the 1950s manga which gave rise to the first Japanese colour TV animation series, Kimba the White Lion, Leonardo Lion of King Leonardo and his Short Subjects, both from the 1960s, up to the 1994 Disney animated feature film The Lion King,[190][191] which also featured the popular song "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" in its soundtrack.

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e Nowell & Bauer (2004). Panthera leo. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 11 May 2006. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is vulnerable
  2. ^ a b c Nowak, Ronald M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9. 
  3. ^ Smuts, G.L. (1982). Lion. Johannesburg: Macmillian South Africa (Publishers)(Pty.) Ltd., p. 231. ISBN 0-86954-122-6. 
  4. ^ Simpson DP (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary, 5th edition, London: Cassell Ltd., p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0. 
  5. ^ Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4. 
  6. ^ "Lion". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition). (1989). Ed. Simpson, J., Weiner, E. (eds). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. 
  7. ^ yourdictionary.com. Archived from the original on 2007-08-26.. As in other ancient scripts, in Ancient Egyptian only the consonants are written. No distinction was made between 'l' and 'r'.
  8. ^ (Latin) Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata.. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii)., p. 824. 
  9. ^ "Panther". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved on 2007-07-05.
  10. ^ Werdelin, Lars; Lewis, Margaret E. (June 2005). "Plio-Pleistocene Carnivora of eastern Africa: species richness and turnover patterns". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 144 (2): 121–144. The Linnean Society of London. 
  11. ^ Yu, Li; Ya-ping Zhang (May 2003). "Phylogenetic studies of pantherine cats (Felidae) based on multiple genes, with novel application of nuclear β-fibrinogen intron 7 to carnivores". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 35 (2): 483–495. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.01.017. 
  12. ^ Yamaguchi, Nobuyuki; Alan Cooper, Lars Werdelin and David W. Macdonald (August 2004). "Evolution of the mane and group-living in the lion (Panthera leo): a review". Journal of Zoology 263 (4): 329–342. doi:10.1017/S0952836904005242. ISSN 1469-7998. 
  13. ^ Turner, Allen (1997). The big cats and their fossil relatives : an illustrated guide to their evolution and natural history. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10229-1. 
  14. ^ a b c d e f Burger, Joachim et al. (March 2004). "Molecular phylogeny of the extinct cave lion Panthera leo spelaea". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30 (3): 841–849. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2003.07.020. 
  15. ^ Harington, CR (1996). American Lion. Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre website. Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre. Retrieved on 2007-09-22.
  16. ^ Barbary Lion - Panthera leo leo - Largest Lion Subspecies Retrieved on 19 September 2007
  17. ^ a b c d e f g Grisham, Jack (2001). "Lion". Encyclopedia of the World's Zoos Volume 2: G–P. Ed. Catherine E. Bell. Chofago: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp.733–739. ISBN1-57958-174-9. 
  18. ^ a b c d Barnett, Ross; Nobuyuki Yamaguchi, Ian Barnes and Alan Cooper (August 2006). "Lost populations and preserving genetic diversity in the lion Panthera leo: Implications for its ex situ conservation". Conservation Genetics 7 (4): 507–514. doi:10.1007/s10592-005-9062-0. 
  19. ^ Barnett, Ross; Nobuyuki Yamaguchi, Ian Barnes and Alan Cooper (2006). "The origin, current diversity and future conservation of the modern lion (Panthera leo)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273 (1598): 2119–2125. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3555. 
  20. ^ Dubach, Jean; et al (January 2005). "Molecular genetic variation across the southern and eastern geographic ranges of the African lion, Panthera leo". Conservation Genetics 6 (1): 15–24. doi:10.1007/s10592-004-7729-6. 
  21. ^ a b Wildlife Conservation Trust of India (2006). Asiatic Lion - History. Asiatic Lion Information Centre. Wildlife Conservation Trust of India. Retrieved on 2007-09-15.
  22. ^ a b c Nowell K, Jackson P (1996). "Panthera Leo", [http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan] (PDF), Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group, 17–21. ISBN 2-8317-0045-0. 
  23. ^ Martin, P.S. (1984). Quaternary Extinctions. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1100-4. 
  24. ^ a b Packer, Craig; Jean Clottes (November 2000). "When Lions Ruled France" (PDF). Natural History: 52–57. 
  25. ^ a b (German) Koenigswald, Wighart von (2002). Lebendige Eiszeit: Klima und Tierwelt im Wandel. Stuttgart: Theiss. ISBN 3-8062-1734-3. 
  26. ^ Baryshnikov, G.F.; G. Boeskorov (2001). "The Pleistocene cave lion, Panthera spelaea (Carnivora, Felidae) from Yakutia, Russia". Cranium 18 (1): 7–24. 
  27. ^ Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Rohan Pethiyagoda, Rajith Dissanayake, Madhava Meegaskumbura (2005). "A second extinct big cat from the late Quaternary of Sri Lanka.". The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement 12: 423–434. National University of Singapore. 
  28. ^ Harington, CR (1969). "Pleistocene remains of the lion-like cat (Panthera atrox) from the Yukon Territory and northern Alaska". Canadian Journal Earth Sciences 6 (5): 1277–1288. 
  29. ^ Shuker, Karl P.N. (1989). Mystery Cats of the World. Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7090-3706-6. 
  30. ^ Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1975). Wild Cats of the World. New York: Taplinger Publishing. ISBN 0-8008-8324-1. 
  31. ^ Doi H, Reynolds B (1967). The Story of Leopons. New York: Putnam. OCLC 469041. 
  32. ^ a b Markel, Scott; Darryl León (2003). Sequence Analysis in a Nutshell: a guide to common tools and databases. Sebastopol, California: O'Reily. ISBN 0-596-00494-X. 
  33. ^ tigon - Encyclopædia Britannica Article. Retrieved on 12 September, 2007.
  34. ^ Lion. Honolulu Zoo. Retrieved on 2007-07-12.
  35. ^ <http://www.treknature.com/gallery/Europe/United_Kingdom/photo50949.htm>
  36. ^ Wood, The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983), ISBN 978-0851122359
  37. ^ Jungle Photos Africa Animals mammals - lion natural history
  38. ^ Schaller, p. 28
  39. ^ Trivedi, Bijal P. (2005). Are Maneless Tsavo Lions Prone to Male Pattern Baldness?. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2007-07-07.
  40. ^ a b Trivedi, Bijal P. (August 22, 2002). Female Lions Prefer Dark-Maned Males, Study Finds. National Geographic News. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2007-09-01.
  41. ^ a b West, Peyton M.; Craig Parker (August 2002). "Sexual Selection, Temperature, and the Lion's Mane". Science 297 (5585): 1339–1343. doi:10.1126/science.1073257. 
  42. ^ a b Yamaguchi, Nobuyuki; B. Haddane (2002). "The North African Barbary lion and the Atlas Lion Project". International Zoo News 49: 465–481. 
  43. ^ a b Menon, Vivek (2003). A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Delhi: Dorling Kindersley India. ISBN 0-14-302998-3. 
  44. ^ Trivedi, Bijal P. (12 June 2002). To Boost Gene Pool, Lions Artificially Inseminated. National Geographic News. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2007-09-20.
  45. ^ McBride, Chris (1977). The White Lions of Timbavati. Johannesburg: E. Stanton. ISBN 0-949997-32-3. 
  46. ^ Tucker, Linda (2003). Mystery of the White Lions—Children of the Sun God. Mapumulanga: Npenvu Press. ISBN 0-620-31409-5. 
  47. ^ The rare white lions Retrieved on 20 September 2007.
  48. ^ Schaller, p. 122
  49. ^ Schaller, p. 120–121
  50. ^ Scott, Jonathon; Scott, Angela. (2002) Big Cat Diary: Lion, p. 85
  51. ^ Schaller, p. 233
  52. ^ Schaller, p. 247–248
  53. ^ Schaller, p. 237
  54. ^ Dr Gus Mills. About lions—Ecology and behaviour. African Lion Working Group. Retrieved on 2007-07-20.
  55. ^ 50/50—SA's top enviro tv programme
  56. ^ African Lion Hunting Habits in South Africa and Southern Africa. Retrieved on 31 July, 2007.
  57. ^ Hayward, Matt W.; Graham Kerley (2005). "Prey preferences of the lion (Panthera leo)". Journal of Zoology 267 (3): 309–322. doi:10.1017/S0952836905007508. 
  58. ^ Kemp, Leigh. The Elephant Eaters of the Savuti. go2africa.
  59. ^ Whitworth, Damien. "King of the jungle defies nature with new quarry", The Australian, October 9, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-07-20. 
  60. ^ Pienaar U de V (1969). "Predator-prey relationships amongst the larger mammals of the Kruger National Park". Koedoe 12: 108–176. 
  61. ^ Schaller, p. 213
  62. ^ a b Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1961). Simba: the life of the lion.. Cape Town: Howard Timmins. 
  63. ^ Schaller, p. 270–276
  64. ^ Lions. Honolulu Zoo. Retrieved on 2007-07-20.
  65. ^ Stander, P. E. (1992). "Cooperative hunting in lions: the role of the individual". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 29 (6): 445–454. doi:10.1007/BF00170175. 
  66. ^ Schaller, p. 153
  67. ^ Schaller, p. 29
  68. ^ a b Schaller, p. 174
  69. ^ Asdell, Sydney A. [1964] (1993). Patterns of mammalian reproduction. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-1753-5. 
  70. ^ Schaller, p. 142
  71. ^ Scott, Jonathon; Scott, Angela. (2002), Big Cat Diary: Lion, p. 45
  72. ^ Scott, Jonathon; Scott, Angela. p. 45
  73. ^ Schaller, p. 143
  74. ^ Macdonald, David (1984). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File, 31. ISBN 0-87196-871-1. 
  75. ^ Scott, Jonathon; Scott, Angela; p. 46
  76. ^ a b Packer, C., Pusey, A. E. (May 1983). "Adaptations of female lions to infanticide by incoming males". American Naturalist 121 (5): 716–728. 
  77. ^ Crandall, Lee S. (1964). The management of wild animals in captivity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 557916. 
  78. ^ Scott, Jonathon; Scott, Angela. p. 68
  79. ^ Bagemihl, Bruce (1999). Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 302–305. ISBN 0-312-19239-8. 
  80. ^ Srivastav, Suvira (15–31 December 2001). Lion, Without Lioness. TerraGreen: News to Save the Earth. Terragreen. Retrieved on 2007-09-02.
  81. ^ Schaller, p. 183
  82. ^ Schaller, p. 184
  83. ^ Yeoman, G.; Jane B. Walker (1967). The ixodid ticks of Tanzania. London: Commonwealth Institute of Entomology. OCLC 955970. 
  84. ^ (German)Sachs, R (1969). "Untersuchungen zur Artbestimmung und Differenzierung der Muskelfinnen ostafrikanischer Wildtiere [Differentiation and species determination of muscle-cysticerci in East African game animals]". Zeitschrift für tropenmedizin und Parasitologie 20 (1): 39–50. PMID 5393325. 
  85. ^ Fosbrooke, Henry (1963). "The stomoxys plague in Ngorongoro". East African Wildlife Journal 1: 124–126. 
  86. ^ Nkwame, Valentine M. "King of the jungle in jeopardy", The Arusha Times, September 9, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-09-04. 
  87. ^ M.E. Roelke-Parker et al. (February 1996). "A canine distemper epidemic in Serengeti lions (Panthera leo)" (PDF). Nature 379: 441–445. doi:10.1038/379441a0. PMID 8559247. 
  88. ^ a b c Schaller, p. 33
  89. ^ Schaller, p. 133
  90. ^ Heinsohn, R.; C. Packer (1995). "Complex cooperative strategies in group-territorial African lions". Science 269 (5228): 1260–1262. doi:10.1126/science.7652573. PMID 7652573. 
  91. ^ Morell, V. (1995). "Cowardly lions confound cooperation theory". Science 269 (5228): 1216–1217. doi:10.1126/science.7652566. 
  92. ^ Jahn, Gary C. (1996). "Lioness Leadership". Science 271 (5253): 1215. doi:10.1126/science.271.5253.1215a. 
  93. ^ Schaller, p. 37
  94. ^ Schaller, p. 39
  95. ^ a b Schaller, p. 44
  96. ^ Schaller, p. 85
  97. ^ Sparks, J (1967). "Allogrooming in primates:a review", in Desmond Morris: Primate Ethology. Chicago: Aldine. ISBN 0-297-74828-9.  (2007 edition: 0-202-30826-X)
  98. ^ (German)Leyhausen, Paul (1960). Verhaltensstudien an Katzen, 2nd ed., Berlin: Paul Parey. ISBN 3-489-71836-4. 
  99. ^ Schaller, p. 85–88
  100. ^ Schaller, p. 88–91
  101. ^ Schaller, p. 92–102
  102. ^ Schaller, p. 103–113
  103. ^ Living Library | Spotted Hyena | Article in Mammals
  104. ^ Lioncrusher's Domain - Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta) facts and pictures
  105. ^ O'Brien, S., D. Wildt, M. Bush (1986). "The Cheetah in Genetic Peril". Scientific American 254: 68–76.
  106. ^ Schaller, p. 293
  107. ^ Animal Info - African Wild Dog
  108. ^ Crocodiles! - PBS Nova transcript
  109. ^ Rudnai, Judith A. (1973). The social life of the lion. Wallingford: s.n.. ISBN 0-85200-053-7. 
  110. ^ The Gir - Floristic. Asiatic Lion Information Centre. Wildlife Conservation Trust of India (2006). Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
  111. ^ a b Schaller, p. 5
  112. ^ Heptner, V.G.; A. A. Sludskii (1989). Mammals of the Soviet Union: Volume 1, Part 2: Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats). New York: Amerind. ISBN 9004088768. 
  113. ^ Past and present distribution of the lion in North Africa and Southwest Asia.. Asiatic Lion Information Centre (2001). Retrieved on 2006-06-01.
  114. ^ Wildlife Conservation Trust of India (2006). Asiatic Lion - Population. Asiatic Lion Information Centre. Wildlife Conservation Trust of India. Retrieved on 2007-09-15.
  115. ^ Bauer H, Van Der Merwe S (2002). "The African lion database". Cat news 36: 41–53. 
  116. ^ Chardonnet P (2002), Conservation of African lion, Paris, France: International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife 
  117. ^ AWF Wildlife: Lion. African Wildlife Foundation.
  118. ^ NATURE. The Vanishing Lions. PBS. Retrieved on 2007-07-20.
  119. ^ Roach, John (July 16, 2003). Lions Vs. Farmers: Peace Possible?. National Geographic News. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2007-09-01.
  120. ^ Saberwal, Vasant K; James P. Gibbs, Ravi Chellam and A. J. T. Johnsingh (June 1994). "Lion-Human Conflict in the Gir Forest, India". Conservation Biology 8 (2): 501–507. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08020501.x. 
  121. ^ Johnsingh, A.J.T. (2004). "WII in the Field: Is Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary ready to play second home to Asiatic lions?". Wildlife Institute of India Newsletter 11 (4). 
  122. ^ Barbary Lion News. Archived from the original on 2005-12-17. Retrieved on 2007-09-24.
  123. ^ Man-eaters of the Field Museum: Lion of Mfuwe. Field Museum of Natural History. Field Museum of Natural History (2007). Retrieved on 2007-09-16.
  124. ^ Patterson, Bruce D.; Ellis J. Neiburger, Ellis J.; Kasiki, Samuel M. (February 2003). "Tooth Breakage and Dental Disease as Causes of Carnivore-Human Conflicts". Journal of Mammalogy 84 (1): 190–196. 
  125. ^ Peterhans, Julian C. Kerbis; Thomas Patrick Gnoske (2001). "The Science of Man-eating". Journal of East African Natural History 90 (1&2): 1–40. ISSN 0012-8317. 
  126. ^ a b Packer, C.; Ikanda, D.; Kissui, B.; Kushnir, H. (August 2005). "Conservation biology: lion attacks on humans in Tanzania". Nature 436 (7053): 927–928. doi:10.1038/436927a. PMID 16107828. 
  127. ^ Frump, RR (2006). The Man-Eaters of Eden: Life and Death in Kruger National Park. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-592288-92-9. 
  128. ^ Daniel Dickinson (October 19, 2004). Toothache 'made lion eat humans'. BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-07-20.
  129. ^ Ludger Kasumuni (August 28, 2006). Terror from man-eating lions increasing in Tanzania. IPPmedia.com. Retrieved on 2007-07-20.
  130. ^ Baldus, R (march 2006). "A man-eating lion (Panthera leo) from Tanzania with a toothache". European Journal of Wildlife Research 52 (1): 59–62. doi:10.1007/s10344-005-0008-0. 
  131. ^ Rushby GG (1965). No More the Tusker. London: W. H. Allen. 
  132. ^ Givskud Zoo Lion Park. Retrieved on 2007-09-07.
  133. ^ de Courcy, p. 81
  134. ^ de Courcy, p. 82
  135. ^ a b Dollinger P, Geser S. Animals: WAZA'S virtual zoo - lion. WAZA'S virtual zoo. WAZA (World Association of Zoos and Aquariums). Retrieved on 2007-09-07.
  136. ^ Aguiar, Eloise (August 2007). "Honolulu zoo's old lion roars no more". Honolulu Advertiser. 
  137. ^ Captive Breeding and Lions in Captivity. Retrieved on 18 September 2007
  138. ^ Smith, Vincent Arthur (1924). The Early History of India. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 97. 
  139. ^ Thomas Wiedemann, Emperors and Gladiators, Routledge, 1995, p. 60. ISBN 0415121647.
  140. ^ Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, p. 17.
  141. ^ Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, pp. 19–21, 42.
  142. ^ Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, p. 20.
  143. ^ Owen, James (November 3, 2005). Medieval Lion Skulls Reveal Secrets of Tower of London "Zoo". National Geographic Magazine. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2007-09-05.
  144. ^ Blunt, p. 15
  145. ^ Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, pp. 24–28.
  146. ^ Blunt, p. 16
  147. ^ a b Blunt, p. 17
  148. ^ de Courcy, p. 8–9
  149. ^ Blunt, p. 32
  150. ^ Son of anglophile Amédée Pichot (Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, p. 114.)
  151. ^ Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, p. 122.
  152. ^ Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, pp. 114, 117.
  153. ^ Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, p. 113.
  154. ^ Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, pp. 173, 180–183.
  155. ^ Blunt, p. 208
  156. ^ de Courcy, p. 69
  157. ^ Hone, William [1825–1826] (2004). "July", in Kyle Grimes: The Every-Day Book. University of Alabama at Birmingham, 26. Retrieved on 2007-09-05. 
  158. ^ Blaisdell, Warren H. (November 1997). "How A Lion Fight Caused England To Stop The Breeding Of Both Ring And Pit Bulldogs". American Bulldog Review 3 (4). 
  159. ^ a b Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier, p. 187.
  160. ^ Feldman, David (1993). How Does Aspirin Find a Headache?. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-016923-0. 
  161. ^ a b c Garai, Jana (1973). The Book of Symbols. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 671-21773-9. 
  162. ^ Aesop; Gibbs L (2002). Aesop's Fables, Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192840509. 
  163. ^ Züchner, Christian (September 1998). "Grotte Chauvet Archaeologically Dated".. Retrieved on 2007-08-27. 
  164. ^ Cass S (1998). Maahes. Encyclopedia Mythica. Encyclopedia Mythica. Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
  165. ^ Lindemans MF (1997). Dedun. Encyclopedia Mythica. Encyclopedia Mythica. Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
  166. ^ Graves, R (1955). "The First Labour:The Nemean Lion", Greek Myths. London: Penguin, 465–469. ISBN 0-14-001026-2. 
  167. ^ JPS Tanakh
  168. ^ Daniel 6
  169. ^ Bhag-P 1.3.18 "In the fourteenth incarnation, the Lord appeared as Nrisimha and bifurcated the strong body of the atheist Hiranyakasipu with His nails, just as a carpenter pierces cane."
  170. ^ Bhag-P 7.8.19–22
  171. ^ Dr. McCleod, Head of Sikh Studies, Department of South Asian Studies, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
  172. ^ Khushwant Singh, A History of the Sikhs, Volume I
  173. ^ Government of India (2005). Know India: State Emblem. National Portal of India. National Informatics Centre. Retrieved on 2007-08-27.
  174. ^ Government of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka National Flag. Government of Sri Lanka. Retrieved on 2007-08-06.
  175. ^ Government of Sri Lanka. Article 6: The National Flag. Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka. Government of Sri Lanka. Retrieved on 2007-08-06.
  176. ^ Li Ling (May 2002). "The Two-Way Process in the Age of Globalization. Archived from the original on 2005-04-06.", translated by Ronald Egan. Ex/Change Newsletter from City University of Hong Kong, Issue 4. Accessed 26 September 2007.
  177. ^ MIT Lion Dance Club - about, accessed 26 September 2007.
  178. ^ Singapore. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. bartleby.com (2000). Retrieved on 2006-04-14.
  179. ^ Early History. Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts, Singapore. Retrieved on 2006-04-14.
  180. ^ Arms of Margaret Norrie McCain, The Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges of Canada. Retrieved on 2008-05-24.
  181. ^ Heraldic Dictionary: Beasts. University of Notre Dame. Retrieved on 2007-07-20.
  182. ^ Official Website of the Detroit Lions. Detroit Lions (2001). Retrieved on 2007-07-08.
  183. ^ "Chelsea centenary crest unveiled", BBC, 2004-11-12. Retrieved on 2007-01-02. 
  184. ^ Aston Villa F.C. (2007). The Aston Villa Crest: 2007 Onwards…. Aston Villa F.C.. Retrieved on 2007-08-06.
  185. ^ Lewis, C.S. (1950). The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-023481-4. 
  186. ^ L. Frank Baum, Michael Patrick Hearn, The Annotated Wizard of Oz, p 148, ISBN 0-517-500868
  187. ^ TV ACRES: Advertising Mascots - Animals - Leo the MGM Lion (MGM Studios). TV Acres.
  188. ^ Adamson, George (1969). Bwana Game : the life story of George Adamson. Fontana. ISBN 0006121454. 
  189. ^ Adamson, Joy [1960] (2000). Born Free: A Lioness of Two Worlds. Pantheon. ISBN 0375714383. 
  190. ^ Schweizer, Peter (1998). Disney: The Mouse Betrayed. Washington D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 164–169. ISBN 0-89526-387-4. 
  191. ^ King Leonardo and His Short Subjects. Internet Movie Database. Internet Movie Database Inc. (2007). Retrieved on 2007-09-14.

References

  • Baratay, Eric; Elisabeth Hardouin-Fugier (2002). Zoo : a history of zoological gardens in the West. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 1-861891-11-3. 
  • Blunt, Wilfred (1975). The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century. London: Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 0-241-89331-3. 
  • de Courcy, Catherine (1995). The Zoo Story. Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-023919-7. 
  • Schaller, George B. (1972). The Serengeti lion: A study of predator-prey relations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-73639-3. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Wikispecies has information related to:
Cats Portal
Mammals Portal




BCUZ.com FACTS Encyclopedia content is licensed under the GFDL as approved by Wikipedia.
For more information review our copyright contact and privacy policy.
© 1996 - BCUZ.COM - We have all the FACTS you need about Small Business Financing, Behavior Disorder, Having Too Many Bills, Needing Cash Fast, Structured Settlements, Frequent Flier Programs, Top Steak Houses, The Mayan Indians, Norfolk and Suffolk England, Growing Longer Hair and a full reference English Encyclopedia and Spanish Encyclopedia.Privacy Policy