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Linus Pauling



National Library of Medicine portrait
National Library of Medicine portrait

In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with a serious form of Bright’s disease, a fatal renal disease. Experts believed then that Bright's disease was untreatable. With the help of Dr. Thomas Addis at Stanford, Pauling was able to control the disease with Addis' then unusual, low protein, salt-free diet. Addis also prescribed vitamins and minerals for all his patients.

In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled, "Molecular Medicine".[59] In the late 1950s, Pauling worked on the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction. It wasn't until he read "Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry" by Abram Hoffer in 1965 that he realized that vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases. Pauling published a brief paper, "Orthomolecular Psychiatry", in the journal Science in 1968 (PMID 5641253) that gave name and principle to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s. Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and is strongly criticized by some.[60][61]

Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Linus Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds (Dunitz 1996:333). Excited by the results, he researched the clinical literature and published "Vitamin C and the Common Cold" in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients.[62] Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, "Cancer and Vitamin C", that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public, but the medical establishment regarded his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds and cure cancer as quackery (Dunitz 1996:333), and considered the case closed after two randomized trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic and published in the New England Journal of Medicine failed to replicate[63] Pauling's study, which found that vitamin C supplementation lengthened survival times significantly.[64] Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation."[65][66] Pauling's original study, based on the observational studies of intravenous vitamin C by orthomolecular medicine pioneers McCormick and Klenner, used intravenous vitamin C for the first ten days, but the randomized trials did not.[67] Pauling published critiques of the second Mayo-Moertel cancer trial's flaws over several years as he was able to slowly unearth some of the trial's undisclosed details.[68] However, the wave of adverse publicity generated by Moertel and the media effectively undercut Pauling's credibility and his vitamin C work for a generation,[69] the oncological mainstream continued with other avenues of treatment.[70] Always precariously perched since his molecular biologically inspired crusade to stop atmospheric nuclear testing in the 1950s,[71] the 1985 Mayo-Moertel confrontation left Pauling isolated from his institutional funding sources, academic support and a bemused public. He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regimen, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy.[72] Of late the "connection between vitamin C and cancer has become a respectable topic", and it was the subject of a Washington DC NIH conference in 1990 (Dunitz 1996:334).

Linus Pauling's book How to Live Longer and Feel Better, advocated very high doses of Vitamin C.
Linus Pauling's book How to Live Longer and Feel Better, advocated very high doses of Vitamin C.

As of 2007, new evidence of high-dose Vitamin C efficacy was proposed by a Canadian group of researchers based on intravenous vitamin C. Intravenous vitamin C can achieve plasma concentrations up to 70-fold higher than oral vitamin C.[73]The selective toxicity of vitamin C for cancer cells has been demonstrated in-vitro (i.e., in a cell culture Petri dish), and was reported in 2005.[74] The combination of case-report data and preclinical information suggest biological plausibility and the possibility of clinical efficacy at the possible expense of critical toxicity at active doses; future clinical testing will ultimately determine the utility and safety of intravenous high-dose Vitamin C treatments for patients with cancer. Researchers released a paper demonstrating in-vivo vitamin C killing of cancer cells in The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2007.[75] These researchers observed longer-than expected survival times in three patients treated with high doses of intravenous Vitamin C.[76] The researchers are reportedly planning a new Phase I clinical trial.[77]

With two colleagues, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, in 1973, which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris. In 1996, the Linus Pauling Institute moved from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, to become part of Oregon State University, where it continues to conduct research on micronutrients, phytochemicals (chemicals from plants), and other constituents of the diet in preventing and treating disease. Several of the employees that had previously worked at the Linus Pauling Institute in Palo Alto moved on to form the Genetic Information Research Institute.

[

Pauling's legacy

Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 7:20 PM at home in Big Sur, California. He was 93 years old.[78][79] A gravemarker for him is in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon.[79][80]

Pauling's contribution to science is held by many in the utmost regard. He was included in a list of the 20 greatest scientists of all time by the magazine New Scientist, with Albert Einstein being the only other scientist from the twentieth century on the list. Gautam R. Desiraju, the author of the Millennium Essay in Nature,[81] claimed that Pauling was one of the greatest thinkers and visionaries of the millennium, along with Galileo, Newton, and Einstein. Pauling is also notable for the diversity of his interests: quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine. In all these fields, and especially on the boundaries between them, he made decisive contributions. His work on chemical bonding marks the beginning of modern quantum chemistry, and many of his contributions like hybridization and electronegativity have become part of standard chemistry textbooks. Although his valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the paramagnetic nature of oxygen and the color of organometallic complexes, and would later be superseded by the Molecular Orbital Theory of Robert Mulliken, the strength of Pauling's theory has lain in its simplicity, and it has endured. Nowadays the Valence Bond theory still exists in its modern form and competes with the Molecular Orbital Theory and Density Functional Theory (DFT) for describing the chemical phenomena.[82] Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds. His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.

In his time, Pauling was frequently honored with the sobriquet "Father of molecular biology", a contribution acknowledged by Francis Crick. His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a 'molecular disease' opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.

Though the scientific community at large did not agree with Pauling's conclusions in his vitamin-related medical research and writing, his entry into the fray gave a larger voice in the public mind to nutrients such as vitamins and minerals for disease prevention. Specifically, his protege Dr Mathias Rath, MD, continued his early works into Cellular Medicine, expanding the volumes of data about natural substances related in disease prevention and alleviation. Pauling's stand also led these subjects to be much more actively investigated by other researchers, including those at the Linus Pauling Institute which lists a dozen principal investigators and faculty who explore the role of micronutrients, plus phytochemicals, in health and disease.

Items named after Pauling include Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon, and Pauling Field a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon. Dr. Pauling spent his youth in Condon.

Linus Torvalds who develops the Linux kernel is named after Pauling.[83]

On 6 March 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling.[84]

California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008 that Pauling will be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony will take place December 10th and his son will accept the honor in his place.

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Honors and awards

Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career. Following are awards and honors he has received.

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Works by Linus Pauling

  • Pauling, L. The Nature of the Chemical Bond. Cornell University Press ISBN 0-8014-0333-2
  • Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry (Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-64871-0
  • Pauling, L. Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu (W.H. Freeman and Company) ISBN 0-7167-0360-2
  • Cameron E. and Pauling, L. Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C (Camino Books) ISBN 0-940159-21-X
  • Pauling, L. How to Live Longer and Feel Better (Avon Books) ISBN 0-380-70289-4
  • Pauling, L. Linus Pauling On Peace - A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival (Rising Star Press) ISBN 0-933670-03-6
  • Pauling, L. General Chemistry (Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-65622-5
  • A Lifelong Quest for Peace with Daisaku Ikeda
  • Pauling, L. The Architecture of Molecules
  • Pauling, L. No More War!

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See also

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References

[

Notes

  1. ^ Dunitz, p. 222.
  2. ^ a b The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information. United States National Library of Medicine. Retrieved on 2008-02-11.
  3. ^ Hager, p. 22.
  4. ^ Mead and Hager, p. 8.
  5. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 1.
  6. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 2.
  7. ^ Hager, p. 21.
  8. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 6.
  9. ^ Hager, p. 24.
  10. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 4.
  11. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 5.
  12. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 12.
  13. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 13.
  14. ^ Mead and Hager, p. 9.
  15. ^ Dunitz, p. 223.
  16. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 17.
  17. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 21.
  18. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 22.
  19. ^ Hager, p. 48.
  20. ^ Linus Pauling – Biography. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  21. ^ Bourgoin, Suzanne M.; Paula K. Byers (1998). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Thomson Gale, Vol. 12, p. 150. ISBN 0787622214. 
  22. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 23.
  23. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 24.
  24. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 25.
  25. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 26.
  26. ^ Swanson, Stephen. "OSU fraternity to donate Pauling treasures to campus library", Oregon State University, 2000-10-03. Retrieved on 2008-03-11. 
  27. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 29.
  28. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 30.
  29. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 31.
  30. ^ Linus Pauling Institute. Linus Pauling: A Biographical Timeline. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  31. ^ "... I [Pauling] am not, however, militant in my atheism. The great English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is a militant atheist. I suppose he is interested in arguing about the existence of God. I am not. It was once quipped that there is no God and Dirac is his prophet." Linus Pauling & Daisaku Ikeda (1992). A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue. Jones & Bartlett, page 22. ISBN 0867202777. 
  32. ^ Tom Hager (December 2004). "The Langmuir Prize" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  33. ^ Linus Pauling (March 1932). "The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another." (html). Journal of the American Chemical Society. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  34. ^ Thomas Hager (December 2004). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  35. ^ Linus Pauling (1928). "London's paper. General ideas on bonds." (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  36. ^ Linus Pauling (1930s). "Notes and Calculations re: Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  37. ^ Linus Pauling (1934-01-06). "Benzene" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  38. ^ Linus Pauling (1946-07-29). "Resonance" (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
  39. ^ Oregon State Special Collections
  40. ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1965). The close-packed-spheron theory and nuclear fission. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  41. ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1965). The close-packed spheron model of atomic nuclei and its relation to the shell model. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  42. ^ Pauling, Linus (July 1966). The close-packed-spheron theory of nuclear structure and the neutron excess for stable nuclei (Dedicated to the seventieth anniversary of Professor Horia Hulubei). Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  43. ^ Pauling, Linus (December 1967). Magnetic-moment evidence for the polyspheron structure of the lighter atomic nuclei. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  44. ^ Pauling, Linus (November 1969). Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  45. ^ Pauling, Linus; Arthur B. Robinson (1975). Rotating clusters in nuclei. Canadian Journal of Physics. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  46. ^ Pauling, Linus (February 1991). http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/26/26-125.html. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  47. ^ Norman D. Cook, Models of the Atomic Nucleus, 2006, Springer
  48. ^ Linus Pauling's DNA Model. Retrieved on 2007-08-06.
  49. ^ Pauling biography citing State Department's revocation of Pauling's passport in 1952. Retrieved on 2007-12-11.
  50. ^ Pauling, Linus; Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer, Ibert Wells (November 1949). Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease. Science. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  51. ^ Paulus, John Allen. "Pauling's Prizes", New York Times, 1995-11-05. Retrieved on 2007-12-09. 
  52. ^ Thomas Hager (29 November 2007). Einstein (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  53. ^ Linus Pauling (May 1952). The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  54. ^ Thomas Hager (29 November 2007). Russell/Einstein (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  55. ^ Thomas Hager (29 November 2007). Strontium-90 (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  56. ^ Thomas Hager (29 November 2007). The Right to Petition (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  57. ^ Linus Pauling; Edward Teller (1958). Teller vs. Pauling (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  58. ^ Linus Pauling (1963-10-10). Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963. (html). Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved on 2007-12-13.
  59. ^ Pauling, Linus (October 1951). Molecular Medicine. Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  60. ^ Cassileth, BR (1998:67). Alternative Medicine Handbook: the Complete Reference Guide to Alternative and Complementary Therapies. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.. 
  61. ^ Vitamin Therapy, Megadose / Orthomolecular Therapy. BC Cancer Agency (February 2000). Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  62. ^ Ewan Cameron M.D.. Cancer bibliography. Doctoryourself.com. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  63. ^ Chen Q et al. (2007). Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo. Proceedings for the National Academy of Sciences. See reference to citations 5,6, and 7.
  64. ^ Cameron E, Pauling L (1978) Supplemental Ascorbate in the Supportive Treatment of Cancer: Reevaluation of Prolongation of Survival Times in Terminal Human Cancer
  65. ^ Ted Goertzel (1996). Analyzing Pauling's Personality: A Three Generational, Three Decade Project. Special Collections, Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  66. ^ (2005), University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-11366-3, Excerpt from pages 89-111
  67. ^ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named PNASQuen2007
  68. ^ Mark Levine; Sebastian J. Padayatty, Hugh D. Riordan, Stephen M. Hewitt, Arie Katz, L. John Hoffer (2006-03-28). Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases. CMA Media. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  69. ^ Ibtravenous Vitamin C Kills Cancer Celld. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (2005-09-12). Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  70. ^ Collin, Harry; Pinch, Trevor (2007). Dr. Golem: How to Think about Medicine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226113671. 
  71. ^ No More War!. Linus Pauling and the Twentieth Century. Archived from the original on 2007-08-06. Retrieved on 2007-08-06.
  72. ^ Andrew W. Saul; Dr. Abram Hoffer. Abram Hoffer, M.D., Ph.D. 50 Years of Megavitamin Research, Practice and Publication. Doctoryourself.com. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  73. ^ Sebastian et al. Vitamin C Pharmacokinetics: Implications for Oral and Intravenous Use (full-text). Annals of Internal Medicine.
  74. ^ Chen Q, Espey M, Krishna M, Mitchell J, Corpe C, Buettner G, Shacter E, Levine M (2005). "Pharmacologic ascorbic acid concentrations selectively kill cancer cells: action as a pro-drug to deliver hydrogen peroxide to tissues". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102 (38): 13604-9. PMID 16157892. 
  75. ^ Chen, Q.; Espey, M.G.; Sun, A.Y.; Lee, J.H.; Krishna, M.C.; Shacter, E.; Choyke, P.L.; Pooput, C.; Kirk, K.L.; Buettner, G.R.; Others, (2007). "[Scholar?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&sa=G&oi=qs&q=%2210.1073+pnas+0702854104%22+author:q-chen Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo]". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (21): 8749. 
  76. ^ Padayatty S, Riordan H, Hewitt S, Katz A, Hoffer L, Levine M (2006). "Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases". CMAJ 174 (7): 937-42. PMID 16567755. 
  77. ^ Assouline S, Miller W (2006). "High-dose vitamin C therapy: renewed hope or false promise?". CMAJ 174 (7): 956-7. PMID 16567756. 
  78. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 247.
  79. ^ a b Linus Pauling dies at 93. The Oregonian, August 20, 1994.
  80. ^ Linus C. Pauling. Find A Grave. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
  81. ^ Desiraju, G.R. (2000-11-23). The all-chemist (PDF). Nature. Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  82. ^ A Conversation on VB vs MO Theory: A Never-Ending Rivalry? 750-756. ACS Publications (2003). Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
  83. ^ Moody, Glyn (2002). Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution. Perseus Books Group, 336. ISBN 0738206709. 
  84. ^ Odegard, Kyle. "Linus Pauling stamp debuts at university", Gazette-Times, 2008-03-07. 

[

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Persondata
NAME Pauling, Linus Carl
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION American biochemist and theoretical chemist, anti-nuclear testing campaigner, Nobel laureate
DATE OF BIRTH February 28, 1901
PLACE OF BIRTH Portland, Oregon
DATE OF DEATH August 19, 1994
PLACE OF DEATH Big Sur, California




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