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East African Campaign (World War II)



General Nasi and his last troops receive military honors at Gondar, November 1941.
General Nasi and his last troops receive military honors at Gondar, November 1941.

In spite of the Duke of Aosta's surrender at Amba Alagi on 18 May 1941, some Italian forces continued to hold out. The port city of Assab and the strongholds of Gondar and Jimma remained under Italian control.

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Operation Chronometer

On 10 June, Operation Chronometer was launched and a battalion from the Indian Army was landed at Assab, the last Italian-held harbour on the Red Sea.[73] By 11 June, Assab had fallen. On 13 June, two days after the fall, the Indian trawler "Parvati" became the last naval casualty of the campaign when it struck a magnetic mine near Assab.

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Nasi and Gazzera

A force under General Guglielmo Nasi, the acting Governor of Amhara, continued to resist at Gondar in northwest Ethiopia. Gondar was the capital of Begemder Province, about 120 miles (190 km) west of Amba Alagi.

Another Italian force under General Pietro Gazzera, the Governor of Galla-Sidama and the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa, continued to resist at Jimma in southwest Ethiopia. Gazzera replaced the Duke of Aosta as Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa.

After capturing Amba Alagi, the commanders of the two major fronts were called on once again by Wavell. The commander of the northern front, William Platt, was tasked with neutralizing the forces under General Nasi in Gondar. The commander of the southern front, Alan Cunningham, was to do the same to General Gazzera's force in Jimma.

General Gazzera surrendered his force first. Even before Cunningham moved against him, Gazzera was faced with a growing irregular force of Ethiopian patriots (or Arbegnoch). Gazzera abandoned Jimma on 21 June 1941. Starting with about 40,000 men, Gazzera attempted a mobile defense. Attempting to move such a large force in hostile territory caused him to quickly lose large numbers of his men all along his route. His colonial troops were especially prone to defection. In July, General Gazzera and his last 7,000 men surrendered when they were cut off by Belgian Major-General Auguste-Éduard Gilliaert, the commander of the Free Belgian Forces in East Africa.

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Battle of Gondar

Main article: Battle of Gondar

After the fall of Amba Alagi, General Nasi held out in Gondar for almost seven months. After General Gazzera surrendered, he became the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa. But, like Gazzera, Nasi faced not just the conventional forces of Platt. He faced an ever increasing force of Ethiopian patriots.

While the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) in East Africa had been worn down quickly by a lop-sided war of attrition, the Italian pilots held on to the bitter end. On 24 October 1941, the last Italian aircraft of the campaign was shot down.[7]

On 27 November 1941 General Nasi surrendered Gondar, receiving full military honors, to a combined force of British and Commonwealth troops and a force of Ethiopians.

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Aftermath

With the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden coastlines cleared of Axis forces, American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was able to declare that these areas were no longer combat zones. As a result, ships of the United States were able to proceed to the Suez Canal. This helped to relieve the enormous strain on the shipping resources of the United Kingdom.[74]

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Ethiopia

In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British, under pressure from the American administration, signed an agreement with Emperor Haile Selassie I acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. Selassie named Makonnen Endelkachew Prime Minister. Selassie reigned until 1974.

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Eritrea

The Italian colony of Eritrea was placed under British military administration for the remainder of World War II. In 1950, Eritrea was made part of Ethiopia. The unification of Eritrea and Ethiopia proved to be unacceptable to the Eritreans and led to the Eritrean War of Independence. The unification ended in the early 1990s. Eritrea became independent on a "de facto" basis in 1991. Eritrea was recognized as being independent "de jure" in 1993.

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Somalia

Italian Somaliland was placed under British military administration for the remainder of the war. In 1948, it was decided that the Ogaden border region would be awarded to Ethiopia. In 1949, the United Nations brought the Italians back to administer Somalia for ten years. In 1960, what had been Italian Somaliland became independent and, days after it became independent, it joined with what had been British Somaliland to create the independent state known as the Somali Republic.

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French Somaliland

After the British and Commonwealth forces occupied Italian East Africa, the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated. The Vichy French continued to hold the colony for over a year after the Italian collapse. In December 1942, after a 101-day British blockade, French Somaliland fell.[75] Free French and Allied forces then occupied the French colony.[76]

A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the liberation of France in 1944.

In 1977, French Somaliland became independent as the Republic of Djibouti.

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Italian guerrilla actions, 1941-1943

Further information: Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia
Italian Propaganda Poster (1942): We will return! ("Ritorneremo") to the Italian African colonies)
Italian Propaganda Poster (1942): We will return! ("Ritorneremo") to the Italian African colonies)

Between November 1941 and September 1943, scattered Italian units (totalling an estimated 7,000 men)[77] fought a guerrilla war from the deserts of Eritrea and Somalia to the forests and mountains of Ethiopia. They supposedly did so in the hope of holding out until the Germans and Italians in Egypt (or even possibly the Japanese in India) intervened.

Amedeo Guillet was one of the Italian officers who fought with the Italian guerrillas in Ethiopia.[78] Other Italian officers were Captain Francesco De Martini in Eritrea, Colonel Calderari in western Ethiopia/Somalia, Colonel Di Marco in Ogaden/British Somaliland, "blackshirt centurion" De Varda in Somalia/Ethiopia and Major Lucchetti in Ethiopia.

The Italian guerrilla was even waged by civilians. In August 1942, Dr. Rosa Dainelli successfully sabotaged the main British ammunition dump in Addis Ababa.

Hostilities in East Africa officially ceased in September 9, 1943 when the Italian government signed an Armistice with the Allies, but even then some Italian soldiers continued their guerrilla war until October 1943, being unaware of the Italian armistice.

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Victoria Cross recipients

The following is a list of recipients of the Victoria Cross (VC) during this campaign:

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See also

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Sources

  • Antonicelli, Franco (1961). Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945 (in Italian). Torino: Mondadori ed.. 
  • Barker, A.J. (1971). Rape of Ethiopia, 1936. Ballantine Books, 160 pages. ISBN 978-0345024626. 
  • Barton, Lt.-Col. JEB. "Chapter 5, Section M", The Italian Invasion of British Somaliland 1st - 18th August 1940. 
  • Brett-James, Antony (1951). Ball of fire - The Fifth Indian Division in the Second World War. Gale & Polden, 481 pages. 
  • Cernuschi, Enrico (dicembre 1994). La resistenza sconosciuta in Africa Orientale (in Italian). Rivista Storica. 
  • Dear, I.C.B.; Foot, M.R.D. (eds) [1995] (2005). Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press, USA, 1064 pages. ISBN 978-0192806703. 
  • Del Boca, Angelo (1986). Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero (in Italian). Roma-Bari: Laterza. ISBN 884202810X. 
  • Mackenzie, Compton (1951). Eastern Epic. Chatto & Windus, London. 
  • Mockler, Anthony (1984). Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941. Random House, New York. ISBN 0-394-54222-3.. 
  • Mollo, Andrew; McGregor, Malcom; Turner, Pierre (1981). The armed forces of World War II : uniforms, insignia, and organization. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-517-54478-4. 
  • Porch, Douglas (2004). The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II. New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux. ISBN 978-0374205188. 
  • Playfair, Major-General I.S.O. (1954). History of the Second World War: The Mediterranean and the Middle East Volume 1. HMSO, London. ISBN?.  This is the official history.
  • Rooney, David (1994). Wingate and the Chindits. London: Cassell & Co. ISBN 0-304-35452-X. 
  • Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary and others (2005). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576079996. 
  • Wavell, Archibald, Official despatch: Operations in East Africa November 1940 - July 1941, London Gazette: no. 37645, pages 3527–3599, 10 July 1946. Retrieved on 2007-11-23.
  • Italian invasion of British Somaliland, The National Archives Ref WO 106/2336.
  • War Diary HQ Somaliforce Jul–Aug 1940, The National Archives Ref WO 169/2870. This file contains many reports, photographs of defensive positions and maps.
  • Revised Notes on the Italian Army (with amendments 1–3 incorporated), The War Office.

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References

  1. ^ Tucker (2005) p.400
  2. ^ Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945 (in Italian) Mondadori Ed. Torino 1961
  3. ^ Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 155
  4. ^ Keegan, John, The Oxford Companion to World War II, p. 245
  5. ^ Keegan, John, The Oxford Companion to World War II, p. 247
  6. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 21 & 30
  7. ^ a b c d Andrew Mollo, "The Armed Forces of World War II, p. 133
  8. ^ Andrew Mollo, "The Armed Forces of World War II, pp. 138-139
  9. ^ a b David Rooney, Wingate and the Chindits, p. 52
  10. ^ a b Rooney, David, Wingate and the Chindits, p. 53
  11. ^ Rooney, David, Wingate and the Chindits, p. 49
  12. ^ Rooney, David, Wingate and the Chindits, pp. 53, 54
  13. ^ Rooney, David, Wingate and the Chindits, pp. 55-56
  14. ^ a b Del Boca, Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero
  15. ^ Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 135
  16. ^ Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 135
  17. ^ "Roll Out the Barrel" (4 December 1944). Time Magazine. 
  18. ^ Portail d'informations Ce site est en vente!
  19. ^ Cernuschi, Enrico. La resistenza sconosciuta in Africa Orientale
  20. ^ Mockler, Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941, p. 241.
  21. ^ "Story of a Siege" (6 October 1941). Time Magazine. 
  22. ^ "War Without Water" (14 August 1940). Time Magazine. 
  23. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 23
  24. ^ Mockler, Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941, pp. 243-45.
  25. ^ a b Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 22
  26. ^ Mockler, Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941, pp. 245-49.
  27. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 23
  28. ^ Mockler, Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941, p. 251.
  29. ^ Red Sea
  30. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 33
  31. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, pp. 33-34
  32. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 43
  33. ^ Compton, Mackenzie,Eastern Epic, p. 32
  34. ^ a b Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 42
  35. ^ Keegan, John, The Oxford Companion to World War II, p. 247
  36. ^ Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 156
  37. ^ a b David Rooney, Wingate and the Chindits, p. 58
  38. ^ David Rooney, Wingate and the Chindits, p. 62
  39. ^ David Rooney, Wingate and the Chindits, p. 63
  40. ^ David Rooney, Wingate and the Chindits, p. 64
  41. ^ Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 156
  42. ^ David Rooney, Wingate and the Chindits, pp. 70-71
  43. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 43
  44. ^ a b Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 44
  45. ^ Keegan, John, The Oxford Companion to World War II, p. 247
  46. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, pp. 44-49
  47. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, pp. 50-51
  48. ^ "Last Act in East Africa" (7 April 1941). Time Magazine. 
  49. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, pp. 52-64
  50. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 56
  51. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, pp. 64-70
  52. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p.60
  53. ^ a b Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 64
  54. ^ a b Brett-James, Anthony, Ball of fire - The Fifth Indian Division in the Second World War, Chp. 4
  55. ^ a b c Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 66
  56. ^ Rohwer, Jurgen, :Chronology of the War at Sea 1939-1945: The Naval History of World War II," p. 61
  57. ^ Ellsberg, Edward (1946). Under the Red Sea Sun. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co.. 
  58. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, pp. 47, 65-66
  59. ^ Rohwer, Jurgen, :Chronology of the War at Sea 1939-1945: The Naval History of World War II," p. 54
  60. ^ Antonicelli,Franco Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945
  61. ^ Mockler, Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941, pp. 365-66.
  62. ^ "Jumbo on the Juba" (3 March 1941). Time Magazine. 
  63. ^ Keegan, John, The Oxford Companion to World War II, p. 247
  64. ^ "Exchange of Somalilands" (10 March 1941). Time Magazine. 
  65. ^ "Key Towns" (31 March 1941). Time Magazine. 
  66. ^ London Gazette: no. 37645, page 3530, 10 July 1946. Retrieved on 2007-11-23. Wavell's official despatch: Operations in East Africa November 1940 - July 1941
  67. ^ a b Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 68
  68. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p.67
  69. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, pp. 69-70
  70. ^ Compton Mackenzie, Eastern Epic, p. 70
  71. ^ "Long Enough for Aosta" (26 May 1941). Time Magazine. 
  72. ^ Antonicelli, Franco.Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945 (in Italian). Mondadori ed. Torino,1961
  73. ^ Rohwer, Jurgen, :Chronology of the War at Sea 1939-1945: The Naval History of World War II," p. 78
  74. ^ Keegan, John, The Oxford Companion to World War II, p. 247
  75. ^ Time Magazine, Story of a Siege
  76. ^ Time Magazine, Mighty Invasion
  77. ^ Enrico Cernuschi. La resistenza sconosciuta in Africa Orientale Rivista Storica, dicembre 1994
  78. ^ Comando Supremo: Amedeo Guillett

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External links




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