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Earth



See also: Spaceship Earth, Gaia theory, and Geocentric orbit

The technological developments of the latter half of the 20th century are widely considered to have altered the public's perception of the Earth. Before space flight, the popular image of Earth was of a green world. Science fiction artist Frank R. Paul provided perhaps the first image of a cloudless blue planet (with sharply defined land masses) on the back cover of the July 1940 issue of Amazing Stories, a common depiction for several decades thereafter.[124]

Earth and Moon from Mars, imaged by Mars Global Surveyor. From space, the Earth can be seen to go through phases similar to the phases of the Moon.
Earth and Moon from Mars, imaged by Mars Global Surveyor. From space, the Earth can be seen to go through phases similar to the phases of the Moon.

Earth was first photographed from space by Explorer 6 in 1959.[125] Yuri Gagarin became the first human to view Earth from space in 1961. The crew of the Apollo 8 was the first to view an Earth-rise from lunar orbit in 1968. In 1972 the crew of the Apollo 17 produced the famous "Blue Marble" photograph of the planet Earth from cislunar space (see top of page). This became an iconic image of the planet as a marble of cloud-swirled blue ocean broken by green-brown continents. NASA archivist Mike Gentry has speculated that "The Blue Marble" is the most widely distributed image in human history. A photo taken of a distant Earth by Voyager 1 in 1990 inspired Carl Sagan to describe the planet as a "Pale Blue Dot."[126] Earth has also been described as a massive spaceship, with a life support system that requires maintenance,[127] or as having a biosphere that forms one large organism.[128]

Over the past two centuries a growing environmental movement has emerged that is concerned about humankind's effects on the Earth. The key issues of this socio-political movement are the conservation of natural resources, elimination of pollution, and the usage of land. Environmentalists advocate sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior. Of particular concern is the large-scale exploitation of non-renewable resources. Changes sought by the environmental movements are sometimes in conflict with commercial interests due to the additional costs associated with managing the environmental impact of those interests.[129]

Future

See also: Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth

The life cycle of the Sun.

The future of the planet is closely tied to that of the Sun. As a result of the steady accumulation of helium ash at the Sun's core, the star's total luminosity will slowly increase. The luminosity of the Sun will increase by 10 percent over the next 1.1 billion years (1.1 Gyr), and by 40% over the next 3.5 Gyr.[130] Climate models indicate that the rise in radiation reaching the Earth is likely to have dire consequences, including the possible loss of the planet's oceans.[131]

The Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic CO2 cycle, reducing its concentration to the lethal levels for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in 900 million years. The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, so animal life will become extinct within several million more years.[24] But even if the Sun were eternal and stable, the continued internal cooling of the Earth would have resulted in a loss of much of its atmosphere and oceans (due to lower volcanism).[132] After another billion years the surface water will have completely disappeared[133] and the mean global temperature will reach 70°C.[24] The Earth is expected to be effectively habitable for another 500 million years or so.[134]

The Sun, as part of its evolution, will expand to a red giant in about 5 Gyr. Models predict that the Sun will expand out to about 250 times its present size, roughly 1 AU (150,000,000 km).[130][135] Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, the Earth will be in an orbit 1.7 AU (250,000,000 km) from the Sun when the star reaches it maximum radius. Therefore, the planet is thought to escape envelopment by the expanded Sun's sparse outer atmosphere, though most (if not all) existing life would have been destroyed by the Sun's proximity to Earth.[130] However, a more recent simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the red giant Sun's atmosphere and be destroyed.[135]

See also

Earth sciences Portal
Solar System Portal

Notes

  1. ^ This is the radius that gives a sphere with the same volume as the WGS 84 reference ellipsoid.
  2. ^ a b c The WGS 84 reference ellipsoid.
  3. ^ Pidwirny, Michael (February 2, 2006). "Surface area of our planet covered by oceans and continents.(Table 8o-1)". University of British Columbia, Okanagan. 
  4. ^ a b Yoder, C. F. (1995) p. 12.
  5. ^ a b c d Williams, David R. (September 1, 2004). Earth Fact Sheet. NASA. Retrieved on 2007-03-17.
  6. ^ Earth (PLANET), entry in the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, Cambridge University Press, online. Accessed 14-II-2008.
  7. ^ Note that by International Astronomical Union convention, the term "Terra" is used for naming extensive land masses, rather than for the planet Earth. C.f.:
    Blue, Jennifer (July 5, 2007). Descriptor Terms (Feature Types). Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS. Retrieved on 2007-07-05.
  8. ^ May, Robert M. (1999). "How many species are there on earth?". Science 241 (4872): 1441–1449. doi:10.1126/science.241.4872.1441. PMID 17790039. 
  9. ^ a b Dalrymple, G.B. (1991). The Age of the Earth. California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1569-6. 
  10. ^ Newman, William L. (July 9, 2007). Age of the Earth. Publications Services, USGS. Retrieved on 2007-09-20.
  11. ^ Dalrymple, G. Brent (2001). "The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved". Geological Society, London, Special Publications 190: 205–221. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14. 
  12. ^ Stassen, Chris (September 10, 2005). The Age of the Earth. The TalkOrigins Archive. Retrieved on 2007-09-20.
  13. ^ Harrison, Roy M.; Hester, Ronald E. (2002). Causes and Environmental Implications of Increased UV-B Radiation. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 0854042652. 
  14. ^ Other planets in the solar system are either too hot or too cold to support liquid water. However, it is confirmed to have existed on the surface of Mars in the past, and may still appear today. See: Msnbc. "Rover reveals Mars was once wet enough for life", NASA, March 2, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-08-28. Staff. "Simulations Show Liquid Water Could Exist on Mars", University of Arkansas, November 7, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-08-08. 
  15. ^ As of 2007, water vapor has been detected in the atmosphere of only one extrasolar planet, and it is a gas giant. See: G. Tinetti et al. (July, 2007). "Water vapour in the atmosphere of a transiting extrasolar planet". Nature 448: 169–171. doi:10.1038/nature06002. 
  16. ^ The number of solar days is one less than the number of sidereal days because the orbital motion of the Earth about the Sun results in one additional revolution of the planet about its axis.
  17. ^ Ahrens, Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants, p. 8.
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  19. ^ Canup, R. M.; Asphaug, E. (Fall Meeting 2001). "An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system". Abstract #U51A-02, American Geophysical Union. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 
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  23. ^ Burton, Kathleen (November 29, 2000). Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land. NASA. Retrieved on 2007-03-05.
  24. ^ a b c Ward and Brownlee (2002)
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  61. ^ This is the measurement taken by the vessel Kaikō in March 1995 and is believed to be the most accurate measurement to date. See the Challenger Deep article for more details.
  62. ^ 7,000 m Class Remotely Operated Vehicle KAIKO 7000. Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC). Retrieved on 2008-06-07.
  63. ^ The total volume of the Earth's oceans is: 1.4×109 km³. The total surface area of the Earth is 5.1×108 km². So, to first approximation, the average depth would be the ratio of the two, or 2.7 km.
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  85. ^ Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.
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  88. ^ For the Earth, the Hill radius is
    \begin{smallmatrix} R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} \end{smallmatrix},
    where m is the mass of the Earth, a is an Astronomical Unit, and M is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in A.U. is about: \begin{smallmatrix} \left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01 \end{smallmatrix}.
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References

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