China
The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the last dynasty is a panentheism system, centering on the worship of "Heaven" as an omnipotent force[citation needed]. This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism or the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity. It has features of a monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. "Heaven" as a supernatural force was variously referred to as Shangdi (literally "Emperor Above"). Worship of Heaven includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Altar of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Manifestation of the powers of Heaven include weather and natural disasters. Although it gradually diminished in popular belief after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among others, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions of China.
Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and is traditionally traced to the composition of Lao Zi's Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Its Virtues) or to seminal works by Zhang Daoling. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on "the way"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include Feng Shui, Sun Tzu's Art of War, and acupuncture.
Buddhism was introduced from India and Central Asia during the Han dynasty and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. Mahayana (大乘, Dacheng) is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely Sinicized and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include Pure Land (Amidism) and Zen. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.
Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety as a top virtue, and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors. The Chinese generally offer prayers and food for the ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of Joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.
Islam, Judaism and Christianity first arrived in China after the 7th century during the Tang Dynasty. Islam was later spread by merchants and craftsmen as trade routes improved along the Silk Road, while Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through Jesuit and later protestant missionaries. Islam arrived in China during the 8th century, only a few years after the Islamic prophet Muhammad's death. The Emperor of China took Islam highly, and the first mosque in China, the Huaisheng Mosque was built in Canton, Guangzhou in 630. In the first half of the 20th century, many Jews arrived in Shanghai and Hong Kong during those cities' periods of economic expansion, seeking refuge from the Holocaust in Europe. Shanghai was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world then to accept them without an entry visa.
Sports and recreation
- For sports in the disputed region Taiwan see Sport in Taiwan.
Many historians believe that football (soccer) originated in China, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 CE.[22] Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, and more recently, golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in urban centers.
There are also many traditional sports. Chinese dragon boat racing occurs during the Duan Wu festival. In Inner Mongolia, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.[23]
China has become a sports power, especially in Asia. It has finished first in medal counts in each of the Asian Games since 1982,[24] and in the top four in medal counts in each of the Summer Olympic Games since 1992.[25] The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, will be held in Beijing. Currently, China has been preparing intensively for the games.
Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice Tai Chi Chuan and qigong in parks.
Board games such as International Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions.
Science and technology
Among the scientific accomplishments of ancient China were paper (not papyrus) and papermaking, woodblock printing and movable type printing, the early lodestone and magnetic compass, gunpowder, toilet paper, early seismological detectors, matches, dry docks, pound locks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, blast furnace and cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the escapement mechanism for clocks, the differential gear for the South Pointing Chariot, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere, the hydraulic-powered trip hammer, the mechanical chain drive, the mechanical belt drive, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, the cannon, the rocket, the multistage rocket, etc. Chinese astronomers were among the first to record observations of a supernova. The work of the astronomer Shen Kuo (1031–1095) alone was most impressive, as he theorized that the sun and moon were spherical, corrected the position of the polestar with his improved sighting tube, discovered the concept of true north, wrote of planetary motions such as retrogradation, and compared the orbital paths of the planets to points on the shape of a rotating willow leaf. With evidence for them, he also postulated geological theories for the processes of land formation in geomorphology and climate change in paleoclimatology. Yet there were many other astronomers than Shen Kuo, such as Gan De, Shi Shen, Zhang Heng, Yi Xing, Zhang Sixun, Su Song, etc. Chinese mathematics evolved independently of Greek mathematics and is therefore of great interest in the history of mathematics. The Chinese were also keen on documenting all of their technological achievements, such as in the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia written by Song Yingxing (1587–1666).
China's science and technology fell behind that of Europe by the 17th century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the high level equilibrium trap. Since the PRC's market reforms China has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.
See also
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References
- ^ 《尚書•梓材》:「皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王」Roughly translated as "The Heavens awarded the lands and peoples of Zhongguo to our ancestors".
- ^ 《毛亨·傳》：「中國，京師也」 Roughly translated as "Zhongguo, the capital."
- ^ See Quansongwen (8345 chapters), 2005. Historic texts written in the period of Southern Song refer to the Jin Dynasty as "barbarians", while Jin texts portray the Song as "Manzi". Official historic texts such as Songshi, which is written after the period, are more neutral.
- ^ The official name of ROC in Chinese is "中华民国". The official name of PRC in Chinese is "中华人民共和国". "Zhongguo" are the first and last characters of both of these official names. Although in both of these contexts, the name does not contain the exact phrasing of "Zhongguo", it is expressed in the similar phrase "Zhonghua", while the PRC's official abbreviation is "中国".
- ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed (AHD4). Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000, entries china, Qin, Sino-.
- ^ "Early Homo erectus Tools in China" by Archaeological Institute of America
- ^ List of Chinese fossil hominids at ChinesePrehistory.org
- ^ The Liujiang skeleton
- ^ "Chinese Roots: Skull may complicate human-origins debate" at Science News Online
- ^ "Bronze Age China" by National Gallery of Art
- ^ Twentieth Century Atlas - Historical Body Count
- ^ Jenks, R.D. Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The Miao ‘Rebellion’, 1854–1873. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1994.
- ^ Cf. William J. Peterson, The Cambridge History of China Volume 9 (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
- ^ Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0
- ^ Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
- ^ Perry, Elizabeth. Rebels and Revolutionaries in Northern China, 1845–1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1980).
- ^ CBC News (2007-09-19). Taiwan's 15th bid for UN membership rejected. Retrieved on 2008-01-07.
- ^ Greater Mekong Subregion Atlas of the Environment published by Asian Development Bank
- ^ "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". BBC news. Accessed 17 April, 2006.
- ^ Bary, Theodore de. "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values". Columbia University.
- ^ Languages. 2005. GOV.cn. URL accessed 3 May 2006.
- ^ Origins of the Great Game. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Accessed 23 April 2006.
- ^ Qinfa, Ye. Sports History of China. About.com. Retrieved April 21, 2006.
- ^ http://www.dohaasiangames.org/en/asian_games_2006/history.html
- ^ International Olympic Committee - Olympic Games
External links
- China.org.cn China news, weather, business, travel, language courses, archives
- U.S. Department of State, Background Note on China
- Interactive China map with province and city guides.
- China Digital Times Online China news portal, run by the Graduate School of Journalism of University of California at Berkeley.
- China Worker
- China Map
- NY Inquirer: China's 21st Century
- The Chinese Superpower-Historical Background, Dr Rivka Shpak-Lissak
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