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Black people



Further information: Hamitic

According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.[97] According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the Deluge and giving rise to three separate races.[98]

The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20-27, which deals with the sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Ham, but on Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.[99][100] The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define blacks, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.[100]

Historians believe that by the 19th century, the belief that blacks were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.[101] According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.[101]

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such racist interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen, who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.[102]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesians and Papuans, the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, and some other small populations of indigenous peoples.
  2. ^ black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved April 13, 2007, from Dictionary.com website
  3. ^ Ho, Mae-Wan (Summer 2001). "The Human Genome Map: the Death of Genetic Determinism and Beyond". Synthesis/Regeneration 25. Gateway Green Alliance. 
  4. ^ Pearce, Neil; et al (1 May 2004). "Genetics, race, ethnicity, and health". British Medical Journal 328: 1070-1072. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7447.1070. 
  5. ^ Genetic Similarities Within and Between Human Populations (2007) by D. J. Witherspoon, S. Wooding, A. R. Rogers, E. E. Marchani, W. S. Watkins, M. A. Batzer, and L. B. Jorde*. Genetics 176(1): 351–359. doi:10.1534/genetics.106.067355. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
  6. ^ Wade, Nicholas. "Race Is Seen as Real Guide to Track Roots of Disease", New York Times, July 30, 2002. 
  7. ^ Lewontin, R.C.. Confusions About Human Races.
  8. ^ Whitehouse, David. "When humans faced extinction", BBC, 9 June 2003. 
  9. ^ Brush with extinction. ABC News Online.
  10. ^ Relethford, J.H. (October 2000). "Human Skin Color Diversity Is Highest in Sub-Saharan African Population". Human Biology 72: 773-80. 
  11. ^ Rogers, Alan R., David Iltis, and Stephen Wooding. 2004. "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair." Current Anthropology 45 (1): 105-108.
  12. ^ Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer.
  13. ^ "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin". Washington Post.
  14. ^ Keita, Lansana (2004). "Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga". CODESRIA Bulletin, Nos 1 & 2: 16. Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa. 
  15. ^ a b Shahadah, Owen 'Alik. Linguistics for a new African reality.
  16. ^ Keith B., Richburg (Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)). Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa. Harvest/HBJ Book. ISBN 0156005832. 
  17. ^ Nullis, Clare. "Township tourism booming in South Africa", The Associated Press, 2007. 
  18. ^ du Preez, Max. "Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens", The Star, April 13, 2006. 
  19. ^ Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
  20. ^ Remembering East African slave raids
  21. ^ The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over
  22. ^ The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)
  23. ^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
  24. ^ Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations
  25. ^ Musselman, Anson. The Subtle Racism of Latin America. UCLA International Institute.
  26. ^ Louis Gosset Jr. Hollywood.com
  27. ^ Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone pages 5-7,31 ISBN 0714634875
  28. ^ African Union Summit
  29. ^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112-113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses [Qur'an 23:1]: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
  30. ^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
  31. ^ "Slavery in Arabia". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah".
  32. ^ Hunwick, John. Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery.
  33. ^ Labbé, Theola; Omar Fekeiki. "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight", Washington Post, 2004-1-11. Retrieved on 2008-01-29. 
  34. ^ "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 , Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative, February 4, 2006
  35. ^ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64
  36. ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.. I Have a Dream [Google Video].
  37. ^ Tom W., Smith (Winter, 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"". The Public Opinion Quarterly 56: 496-514. Oxford University Press.. 
  38. ^ McWhorter, John H.. "Why I'm Black, Not African American", Los Angeles Times, September 8, 2004. 
  39. ^ Miller, Pepper; Herb Kemp (2006). What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market. Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0972529098. 
  40. ^ "'African American' Becomes a Term for Debate", New York Times, August 29, 2004.
  41. ^ 2000 US Census basics
  42. ^ How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer
  43. ^ a b James, F. Davis. Who is Black? One Nation's Definition. PBS.
  44. ^ Clarence Page, A Credit to His Races, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 1, 1997.
  45. ^ "Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule" by Frank Sweet
  46. ^ Nakao, Annie. "Play explores corrosive prejudice within black community", San Francisco Chronicle, January 28 2004. 
  47. ^ Mixed Historical Figures.
  48. ^ Crawford, Larry D.. Racism, Colorism and Power.
  49. ^ Jones, Trina (October 1972). "Shades of Brown: The Law of Skin Color". Duke Law Journal 49: 1487. Duke University School of Law. 
  50. ^ "Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'", BBS News, April 13 2007. 
  51. ^ White, John Kennet. Barack Obama and the Politics of Race.
  52. ^ Acting White. By Melissa Edler Kent State Magazine.
  53. ^ Blacks and Bill Clinton
  54. ^ No One Left to Lie to by Christopher Hitchens, 1999, pg 47
  55. ^ Find Articles 404 File not found
  56. ^ US chose to ignore Rwandan genocide | Special reports | Guardian Unlimited
  57. ^ Clinton's welfare reform has increased child poverty
  58. ^ Kevin Alexander Gray: Soul Brother? Clinton and Black Americans
  59. ^ Transcript Excerpt: Sen. Barack Obama, Read A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama - CBS News
  60. ^ Black Like Me?
  61. ^ Is black America ready to embrace Obama?
  62. ^ Decoding the Debate Over the Blackness of Barack Obama New York Times
  63. ^ Poll: Obama makes big gains among black voters - CNN.com
  64. ^ [1]
  65. ^ Racial tensions roil Democratic race - Ben Smith - Politico.com
  66. ^ a b Skidmore, Thomas E. (April 1992). "Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil". Working Paper 173. 
  67. ^ a b Edward E., Telles (2004). Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil. Princeton University Press, 95-98. ISBN 0691118663. 
  68. ^ Telles, Edward E. (3 May 2002). "Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population". Ethnic and Racial Studies 25: 415-441. California Center for Population Research. 
  69. ^ CIA World Factbook: Brazil.
  70. ^ Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians
  71. ^ Barrolle, Melvin Kadiri. African 'Americans' in Brazil. New America Media.
  72. ^ Roland, Edna Maria Santos. The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil.
  73. ^ Charles Whitaker, "Blacks in Brazil: The Myth and the Reality," Ebony, February 1991
  74. ^ Soap operas on Latin TV are lily white
  75. ^ The Blond, Blue-Eyed Face of Spanish TV
  76. ^ Skin tone consciousness in Asian and Latin American populations
  77. ^ Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White, Los Angeles Times, September 3, 2006
  78. ^ Naturally blonde blacks
  79. ^ Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; et al (21 January 2003). "Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population". Current Biology 13, Number 2: 86-93(8). 
  80. ^ Sunday Times Rich List 2007 - Business
  81. ^ National Statistics Online
  82. ^ BBC NEWS | UK | Born Abroad | Countries of birth
  83. ^ MediaRights: Film: Black Russians
  84. ^ Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English
  85. ^ The Unmaking of Soviet Life: Everyday Economies After Socialism By Caroline Humphrey Cornell University 2002 p36-37
  86. ^ Lisa Taylor, Emergency—Explosion of State and Popular Racism follows Moscow Blasts, International Solidarity with Workers in Russia (ISWoR), 13 September 1999.
  87. ^ Biological and Ethnic Identity in New Kingdom Nubia
  88. ^ a b Building bridges to Afrocentrism
  89. ^ Huge Ancient Egyptian Photo Gallery.
  90. ^ Snowden, Jr., Frank M. (1996). in Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers (eds.): Black Athena Revisited. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 113-14. “....the Afrocentrists are mistaken in assuming that the terms Afri (Africans) and various color adjectives for dark pigmentation as used by Greeks and Romans are always the classical equivalents of Negores or blacks in modern usage.... That the pigmentation of the Egyptians was seen as lighter than that of Ethiopians is also attested by the adjective subfusucli ("somewhat dark") which Ammianus Marcellinus (22.16.23) chose to describe the Egyptians....” 
  91. ^ Keita, Boyce, Shomarka, A.J. (1996). in Theodore Celenko(ed): Egypt in Africa. Chapel Hill: Indianapolis Museum of Art, 25-27. “....The descriptions and terms of ancient Greek writers have sometimes been used to comment on Egyptian origins. This is problematic since the ancient writers were not doing population biology. However, we can examine one issue. The Greeks called all groups south of Egypt "Ethiopians." Were the Egyptians more related to any of these "Ethiopians" than to the Greeks? As noted, cranial and limb studies have indicated greater similarity to Somalis, Kushites and Nubians, all "Ethiopians" in ancient Greek terms.....” 
  92. ^ The Identity Of Ancient.
  93. ^ Were the Ancient Egyptians black or white
  94. ^ Basil Davidson. The Nile.
  95. ^ Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships, by S.O.Y. Keita, History in Africa, 20: 129-154 (1993)
  96. ^ Keita, S.O.Y. (March 1992). "Further studies of crania from ancient northern Africa: an analysis of crania from First Dynasty Egyptian tombs.". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87 (3): 245–254. “The predominant craniometric pattern in the Abydos [First Dynasty] royal tombs is "southern" (tropical African variant)... However, lower Egyptian, Maghrebian, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity... The centroid values of the various upper Egyptian series viewed collectively are seen to vary over time. The general trend from Badari to Nakada times, and then from the Nakadan to the First Dynasty epochs demonstrate change toward the northern-Egyptian centroid value on Function I with similar values on Function 11. This might represent an average change from an Africoid (Keita, 1990) to a northern-Egyptian-Maghreb modal pattern.... This northern modal pattern, which can be called coastal northern African, is noted in general terms to be intermediate, by the centroid scores of Function I, to equatorial African and northern European phenotypes.” 
  97. ^ Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry, (Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 28-117
  98. ^ The Descendants of Noah.
  99. ^ Redford, Donald B. (1993). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press, 23-87. ISBN 0691000867. 
  100. ^ a b Goldenberg, David M. (New Ed edition (July 18, 2005)). The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691123705. 
  101. ^ a b Felicia R. Lee, Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale, Racematters.org, November 1, 2003
  102. ^ Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian, Princeton University Press

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