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Ancient Rome



The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were particularly famous for their public baths, called thermae, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have flush toilets and indoor plumbing, and a complex sewer system, the Cloaca Maxima, was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into the Tiber river. Some historians have speculated that the use of lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread lead poisoning which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the fall of Rome. However, lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a small number of taps were in use.[105]

Military

Main articles: Military history of ancient Rome, Roman military, Structural history of the Roman military, Roman army, and Roman navy
Roman soldiers on the cast of Trajan's Column in the Victoria and Albert museum, London.
Roman soldiers on the cast of Trajan's Column in the Victoria and Albert museum, London.

The early Roman army (c. 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporary city-states influenced by Greek civilization, a citizen militia which practiced hoplite tactics. It was small (the population of free males of military age was then about 9,000) and organized in five classes (in parallel to the comitia centuriata, the body of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.[106] By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or in some cases 60) men called maniples could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a legion, totaling between 4,000 and 5,000 men. The early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry (hastati, principes and triarii), a force of light infantry (velites), and the cavalry (equites). With the new organization came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.[107]

At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion would have included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry and several hundred cavalrymen, for a total of 4,000 to 5,000 men.[108] Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because recently recruited, while Caesar's legions were in many cases well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul. This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces.[109]

As described by Goldsworthy, both the Greek and Roman phalanx and the early Republican legions were intended to fight large scale battles involving a single quick, decisive clash with the enemy. At this they were generally very successful.[110] At the time of the Marian reforms in the late Republic (c. 100 BC), further organizational change created a more flexible, resilient and versatile force. The legion was now divided into ten cohorts of 480 men each, comprising three of the old maniples (now called centuriae or "centuries" commanded by a centurion).[111] Moreover, the velites (light infantry) and (probably) the equites were eliminated and replaced by auxilia (auxiliary units of cavalry, archers and slingers, and light infantry, usually recruited from non-citizens). There were no other subdivisions within a legion, but many men with specialized skills—medics, engineers, technicians, artillerymen—were included among the legionaries.[112] The centuries in a cohort had a unified command structure and were experienced at working with the other centuries in the cohort as a unit. A legion organized in cohorts was easier to control, and cohorts could easily be detached and act independently where that was useful on the battlefield or a separate smaller force was needed. Accordingly, legions organized in cohorts could conduct operations of almost any scale.[113]

Three long-term trends characterized the development of the Roman army over its history: increasing professionalization, a widening of the base for recruitment, and an increase in the variety and flexibility of military units. Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an adsiduus) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,[114] and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of equites, his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BC, the average rural farmer (who survived) might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen and slaves (wherever resident) and urban citizens did not serve except in rare emergencies.[115] After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for service were gradually reduced. Beginning with Gaius Marius in 107 BC, citizens without property and some urban-dwelling citizens (proletarii) were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years if emergencies required it although Brunt argues that six or seven years was more typical.[116] Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid stipendium (amounts are disputed but Caesar famously "doubled" payments to his troops to 225 denarii a year), could anticipate booty and donatives (distributions of plunder by commanders) from successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, often were granted allotments of land upon retirement.[117] Cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the auxilia) were often recruited in the areas where the legion served. These troops were familiar with local conditions and fought in a style adapted to the local terrain.[118] Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul.[119] During the Civil War when large armies were required, both sides raised legions from non-citizens, as Goldsworthy notes, "without bothering with the formality of granting citizenship to the men on enlistment."[120] By the time of Caesar Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Legionaries were paid 900 sesterces a year and could expect a payment of 12,000 sesterces on retirement.[121]

At the end of the Civil War, Augustus reorganized Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, which were now based in permanent camps on the frontier along the Rhine and Danube Rivers and in Syria. Composed of about 150,000 citizen legionaries, an approximately equal number of auxilia and a navy of unknown size, this establishment remained the standard until late in the history of the Empire.[122] During the Principate, with a few exceptions,[123] warfare was conducted on a smaller scale. The auxilia were not organized into larger units but remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops themselves often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new versatile type of unit, the cohortes equitatae, combining cavalry and legionaries in a single formation could be stationed at garrisons or outposts, could fight on their own as balanced small forces or could combine with other similar units as a larger legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility over time helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.[124]

The Emperor Gallienus (253–268 AD) began yet another reorganization that created the final military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the Comitatenses or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. This reduced the need to move troops from one province to another to reinforce the border in case of attacks. The border troops (limitanei) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense. The Emperor Diocletian (284–305 AD) reversed this reorganization but it became the norm by the middle of the 4th century AD. Diocletian also introduced the so-called Tetrarchy under which the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire were each governed by an "Augustus" (Emperor) and a "Caesar" (junior Emperor), who resided at different locations near the borders and commanded troops within their respective regions.[125] The basic unit of the field army was the "regiment", legiones or auxilia for infantry and vexellationes for cavalry. Evidence suggests that nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, although many records show lower actual troop levels (800 and 400). Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a comes. In addition to Roman troops, the field armies included regiments of "barbarians" recruited from allied tribes and known as foederati. By 400 AD, foederati regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. In addition to the foederati, the Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as "allies" without integration into the field armies. Under the command of the senior Roman general present, they were led at lower levels by their own officers.[126]

The nature of military leadership evolved greatly over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies would have been led by the kings of Rome. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected consuls for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the cursus honorum, would have served first as quaestor (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as praetor (sometimes posted as provincial governors in charge of military forces in the relevant province), then as consul (supreme command of all military forces). Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a propraetor or proconsul (depending on the highest office previously held) to govern a foreign province. More junior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) were selected by their commanders from their own clientelae or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite.[127] Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a legatus (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate would command the legion (legatus legionis) and also serve as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion would be commanded by a legate and the legates would be commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).[128] During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with Diocletian), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (duces) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples.[129]

Comparatively less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as duumviri navales commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The First Punic War required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The quinquireme was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels. As compared with a trireme, the quinquireme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect boarding tactics using a troop of approximately 40 marines in lieu of the ram. Ships were commanded by a navarch, a rank equivalent to a centurion, who were usually not citizens. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.[130]

Available information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised a number of fleets including both warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (classes) were part of the limitanei (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and the Danube. The fact that prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known although it is known that fleets were commanded by prefects.[131]

Scholarly studies

The interest in studying ancient Rome arose presumably during the Age of Enlightenment in France. Charles Montesquieu wrote a work Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans. The first major work was The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, which encompassed the period from the end of 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Like Montesquieu Gibbon paid high tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a founder of the criticism and wrote The Roman History, carried until the First Punic war. Niebuhr has made an attempt to determine the way the Roman tradition appeared. According to him, Romans, like other people, had a historical ethos which was preserved mainly in the noble families. During the Napoleonic period the work titled The History of Romans by Victor Duruy appeared. It highlighted the Caesarean period popular at the time. History of Rome, Roman constitutional law and Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, all by Theodor Mommsen, became very important milestones. Later the work Greatness and Decline of Rome by Guglielmo Ferrero was published. The Russian work Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи (The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire) by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the greatest landowners during the end of the Republic.

See also

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Notes

  1. ^ Chris Scarre, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995).
  2. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 3.
  3. ^ The Founding of Rome. Accessed 2007-3-8.
  4. ^ a b Livy, 1998. page 8.
  5. ^ a b Durant, 1944. Pages 12-14.
  6. ^ Livy, 1998. pages 9-10.
  7. ^ Roggen, Hesse, Haastrup, Omnibus I, H. Aschehoug & Co 1996
  8. ^ Livy, 1998. pages 10-11.
  9. ^ Myths and Legends- Rome, the Wolf, and Mars. Accessed 2007-3-8.
  10. ^ [Matyszak, 2003. page 19.
  11. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 129.
  12. ^ Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire by Michael Kerrigan. Dorling Kindersley, London: 2001. ISBN 0-7894-8153-7. page 12.
  13. ^ Matyszak, 2003. pages 43-44.
  14. ^ Adkins, 1998. pages 41-42.
  15. ^ Rome: The Roman Republic by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. Written 1999-6-6. Accessed 2007-3-24.
  16. ^ a b Magistratus by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pages 723-724 of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website written 2006-12-8. Accessed 2007-3-24.
  17. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 39.
  18. ^ Haywood, 1971. pages 350-358.
  19. ^ Pyrrhus of Epirus (2) and Pyrrhus of Epirus (3) by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Accessed 2007-3-21.
  20. ^ Haywood, 1971. pages 357-358.
  21. ^ Haywood, 1971. page 351.
  22. ^ Haywood, 1971. pages 376-393.
  23. ^ Rome: The Punic Wars by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. Written 1999-6-6. Accessed 2007-3-22.
  24. ^ Bagnall 1990
  25. ^ Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. Written 1999-6-6. Accessed 2007-3-22.
  26. ^ Duiker, 2001. pages 136-137.
  27. ^ Fall of the Roman Republic, 133-27 BC. Purdue University. Accessed 2007-3-24.
  28. ^ a b Eques (Knight) by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Accessed 2007-3-24.
  29. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 38.
  30. ^ Durant, 1944. pages 120-122.
  31. ^ Long-lasting Effects of Removal of Land Requirement. Accessed 2007-3-23.
  32. ^ Scullard 1982, chapters I-IV
  33. ^ Scullard 1982, chapters VI-VII
  34. ^ Julius Caesar (100BCE - 44BC). [1]. Accessed 2007-3-21.
  35. ^ Augustus (31 BC - 14 CE) by Garrett G. Fagan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2004-7-5. Accessed 2007-3-21.
  36. ^ Scullard 1982, chapter VIII
  37. ^ Augustus (63 BC. - AD14) from bbc.co.uk. Accessed 2007-3-12
  38. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 140.
  39. ^ The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC -68 AD). by the Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Written October, 2000. Accessed 2007-3-18.
  40. ^ Nero (54-68 AD) by Herbert W. Benario. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2006-11-10. Accessed 2007-3-18
  41. ^ Suetonius
  42. ^ Five Good Emperors from UNRV History. Accessed 2007-3-12.
  43. ^ O'Connell, 1989. page 81.
  44. ^ Lecture 12: Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana by Steven Kreis. The History Guide. Written 2006-2-28. Accessed 2007-3-21.
  45. ^ a b c Scarre 1995
  46. ^ Haywood, 1971. pages 589-592.
  47. ^ Crisis of the Third Century (235-285) History of Western Civilization, by E.L. Skip Knox, Boise State University. Accessed 2007-3-20.
  48. ^ Haywood, 1971. pages 592-596.
  49. ^ Diocletian ( 284-305 AD) by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1997-3-17. Accessed 2007-3-20.
  50. ^ Constantine I (306 - 337 AD) by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2004-1-8. Accessed 2007-3-20.
  51. ^ Honorius (395-423 AD) by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1999-6-2. Accessed 2007-3-21.
  52. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 155.
  53. ^ The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe The University of Calgary. Written August 1996. Accessed 2007-3-22.
  54. ^ Lapham, Lewis (1997). The End of the World. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-25264-1. pages 47-50.
  55. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 157.
  56. ^ Romulus Augustulus (475-476 AD)--Two Views by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1997-8-26. Accessed 2007-3-22.
  57. ^ Durant, 1944. page 670.
  58. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 347.
  59. ^ a b c The Byzantine Empire by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. Written 1999-6-6. Accessed 2007-4-8.
  60. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 349.
  61. ^ Basil II (CE 976-1025) by Catherine Holmes. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2003-4-1. Accessed 2007-3-22.
  62. ^ Gibbon, Edward. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Chapter 61. Accessed 2007-4-11.
  63. ^ Mehmet II by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Accessed 2007-4-3.
  64. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 149.
  65. ^ Abstrat of The population of ancient Rome. by Glenn R. Storey. HighBeam Research. Written 1997-12-1. Accessed 2007-4-22.
  66. ^ The Population of Rome by Whitney J. Oates. Originally published in Classical Philology. Vol. 29, No. 2 (April 1934), pp101-116. Accessed 2007-4-22.
  67. ^ N.Morley, Metropolis and Hinterland (Cambridge, 1996) 174-83
  68. ^ Matyszak, 2003. pages 16-42.
  69. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 46.
  70. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 146.
  71. ^ a b Duiker, 2001. page 146.
  72. ^ a b Casson, 1998. pages 10-11.
  73. ^ Family Values in Ancient Rome by Richard Saller. The University of Chicago Library Digital Collections: Fathom Archive. Written 2001. Visited 2007-4-14.
  74. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 339.
  75. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 340.
  76. ^ a b Lecture 13: A Brief Social History of the Roman Empire by Steven Kreis. Written 2006-10-11. Accessed 2007-4-2.
  77. ^ a b c d e f g h Adkins, 1998. page 211.
  78. ^ a b Werner, 1978. page 31.
  79. ^ Duiker, 2001. page 143.
  80. ^ a b c Roman Education. Latin ExCET Preparation. Texas Classical Association. Written by Ginny Lindzey, September 1998. Accessed 2007-3-27.
  81. ^ "Latin alphabet." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed 2007-4-19.
  82. ^ Latin Online: Series Introduction by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum. Linguistics Research Center. The University of Texas at Austin. Written 2007-2-15. Accessed 2007-4-1.
  83. ^ The Latin Alphabet by J. B. Calvert. University of Denver. Written 1999-8-8. Accessed 2007-4-1.
  84. ^ Classical Latin Supplement. page 2. Accessed 2007-4-2.
  85. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 203.
  86. ^ Matyszak, 2003. page 24.
  87. ^ Willis, 2000. page 168.
  88. ^ Willis, 2000. page 166.
  89. ^ Julian the Apostate (360-363 AD) by Walter Roberts and Michael DiMaio, Jr. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2002-2-19. Accessed 2007-4-4.
  90. ^ Theodosius I (379-395 AD) by David Woods. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1999-2-2. Accessed 2007-4-4.
  91. ^ a b Adkins, 1998. pages 350-352.
  92. ^ a b Roman Painting from Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Written 2004-10. Accessed 2007-4-22.
  93. ^ a b c Chronology: Ancient and Medieval: Ancient Rome. iClassics. Excerpt from A History of Western Music, Fifth Edition by Donald Jay Grout and Claude V. Palisca. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.: 1960. Accessed 2007-4-22.
  94. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 89.
  95. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 349-350.
  96. ^ Adkins, 1998. page 300.
  97. ^ Grant, 2005. pages 130-134.
  98. ^ a b c Casson, 1998. pages 98-108.
  99. ^ a b Daily Life: Entertainment. SPQR Online. Written 1998. Accessed 2007-4-22.
  100. ^ a b c Adkins, 1998. page 350.
  101. ^ The Gladiator and the Thumb. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Accessed 2007-4-24.
  102. ^ Circus Maximus. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Accessed 2007-4-19.
  103. ^ Athena Review I,4: Romans on the Rhône: Arles
  104. ^ Frontinus
  105. ^ Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply by A.T. Hodge (1992)
  106. ^ John Keegan, A History of Warfare, Alfred A. Knopf (New York 1993) [ISBN 0-394-58801-0], p.263; David Potter, "The Roman Army and Navy," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) [ISBN 0-521-00390-3], pp. 67-69. For a discussion of hoplite tactics and their sociocultural setting, see Victor Davis Hanson, The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece, Alfred A. Knopf (New York 1989) [ISBN 0-394-57188-6].
  107. ^ Keegan, p. 264; Potter, pp. 69-70.
  108. ^ Keegan, p.264; Adrian Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC - CE200, Oxford University Press (Oxford 1996) [ISBN 0-19-815057-1], p. 33; Jo-Ann Shelton, ed., As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History, Oxford University Press (New York 1998)[ISBN 0-19-508974-X], pp. 245-249.
  109. ^ Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, pp. 22-24, 37-38; Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus, Yale University Press (New Haven 2006) [ISBN-10: 0300120486, ISBN-13: 978-0-300-12048-6], pp. 384, 410-411, 425-427. Another important factor discussed by Goldsworthy was absence of legionaries on detached duty.
  110. ^ Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, pp. 33, 37.
  111. ^ Later in the Imperial period, the first cohort grew to a nominal strength of 800 men organized in five centuriae commanded by the primi ordines, the senior centurions of the legion. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, p.14.
  112. ^ Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, pp. 16-17.
  113. ^ Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, pp.33-35.
  114. ^ Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought every year except for five. Stephen P. Oakley, "The Early Republic," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) [ISBN 0-521-00390-3], p. 27.
  115. ^ P. A. Brunt, "Army and Land in the Roman Republic," in The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays, Oxford University Press (Oxford 1988) [ISBN 0-19-814849-6], p.253; William V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 BC, Oxford University Press (Oxford 1979) [ISBN 0-19-814866-6], p. 44.
  116. ^ Keegan, pp. 273-274; Brunt, pp. 253-259; Harris, pp. 44-50.
  117. ^ Keegan, p. 264; Brunt, pp. 259-265; Potter, pp. 80-83.
  118. ^ Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, pp. 35-36.
  119. ^ Goldsworthy, Caesar, pp. 391.
  120. ^ Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, pp. 35-36.
  121. ^ Karl Christ, The Romans, University of California Press (Berkeley, 1984)[ISBN 0-520-04566-1], pp. 74-76 .
  122. ^ Christopher S. Mackay, Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge, U.K. 2004), pp. 249-250. Mackay points out that the number of legions (not necessarily the number of legionaries) grew to 30 by 125 AD and 33 during the Severan period (200–235 AD).
  123. ^ For example, the Pannonian Revolt (6–9 AD), periodic wars against the Parthians, and campaigns by Domitian and Trajan against the Dacians.
  124. ^ Goldsworthy, ‘’The Roman Army’’, p.36-37.
  125. ^ Mackay, pp. 275, 279-281.
  126. ^ Hugh Elton, Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350-425, Oxford University Press (Oxford 1996)[ISBN 0-19-815241-8] pp. 89-96.
  127. ^ T. Correy Brennan, "Power and Process Under the Republican 'Constitution'," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) [ISBN 0-521-00390-3], Chapter 2; Potter, pp. 66-88; Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, pp. 121-125. Julius Caesar's most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, Titus Labienus, was recommended to him by Pompey. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, p. 124.
  128. ^ Mackay, pp. 245-252.
  129. ^ MacKay, pp. 295-296 and Chapters 23-24.
  130. ^ This paragraph is based upon Potter, pp. 76-78.
  131. ^ This discussion is based upon Elton, pp. 97-99 and 100-101.

References

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  • O'Connell, Robert (1989). Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505359-1. 
  • Scarre, Chris (September 1995). The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051329-9. 
  • Scullard, H. H. (1982). From the Gracchi to Nero, (5th edition), Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02527-3. 
  • Werner, Paul (1978). Life in Rome in Ancient Times, translated by David Macrae, Geneva: Editions Minerva S.A.. 
  • Willis, Roy (2000). World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide. Collingwood, Victoria: Ken Fin Books. ISBN 1-86458-089-5. 
  • Dio, Cassius. Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61-76 (CE 54-211). Retrieved on 2006-12-17.

Further reading

  • Cowell, Frank Richard. Life in Ancient Rome. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1961 (paperback, ISBN 0-399-50328-5).
  • Gabucci, Ada. Rome (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 2). Berkekely: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0520252659).
  • Wyke, Maria. Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History. New York; London: Routledge, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-90613-X, paperback, ISBN 0-415-91614-8).

External links




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